UNIVERSITY   OF   CALIFORNIA 

COLLEGE    OF   AGRICULTURE 

AGRICULTURAL    EXPERIMENT   STATION 

BERKELEY,    CALIFORNIA 


APPLE  GROWING  IN  CALIFORNIA 


F.  W.  ALLEN 


General  view  of  young  apple  orchards  in  one  of  the  larger 
districts  of  California. 


BULLETIN  425 


May,  1927 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  PRINTING  OFFICE 

BERKELEY,  CALIFORNIA 

1927 


APPLE  GROWING  IN  CALIFORNIA 

F.  W.  ALLENi 


PREFACE 

While  it  is  the  purpose  of  this  bulletin  to  cover  the  field  of  apple 
growing  in  California  generally,  it  is  manifestly  impossible  in  a  publi- 
cation of  this  size  to  discuss  all  phases  of  the  industry  in  any  great 
detail.  However,  in  connection  with  many  of  the  topics  considered, 
references  are  given  to  other  available  bulletins  and  it  is  hoped  those 
whoare  interested  in  more  complete  information  regarding  any  single 
subject  will  secure  these  to  supplement  that  given  on  the  following 
pages. 

GENERAL  REVIEW  OF  THE  INDUSTRY 

The  value  of  the  apple  crop  in  the  United  States  exceeds  that  of 
any  other  fruit.  Apples  being  widely  adapted  geographically,  are 
grown  commercially  in  all  but  a  few  states.  Owing  to  the  fact  that 
California  produces  a  greater  variety  of  fruits  than  any  other  state 
and  leads  in  the  production  of  almonds,  apricots,  peaches,  pears, 
prunes,  and  walnuts,  as  well  as  lemons  and  oranges,  the  importance 
of  our  apples  is  usually  underestimated.  In  total  production  of 
apples,  the  state  generally  ranks  fifth  or  sixth,  being  exceeded  only 
by  Washington,  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Michigan  or  Ohio.  Cali- 
fornia production  for  the  past  eight  years  is  shown  in  table  1. 

TABLE  1 
Production  and  Value  of  California  Apples. 

Production 
in 
Year  bushels 

1919  8,200,000 

1920  6,000,000 

1921  6,500,000 

1922  7,850,000 

1923  10,500,000 

1924  8,903,000 

1925  6,016,000 

1926  10,350,000 


ORNiA  Apples 

3.     1919-1926* 

Farm  value 
per  bushel 
December  1 

Total  value 

$1.45 
1.60 
1.35 

$11,890,000 
9,600,000 
8,775,000 

0.90 
0.75 
1.22 

7,065,000 

7,875,000 

10,862,000 

1.15 
0.50 

6,918,000 
5,175,000 

$1.11 

$8,520,000 

Average  8,039,000 

*  Summary  of  Annual  Crop  Report  1926  (mimeographed)  ;  and  California  Crop  Report 
1925.  Special  Publication  No.  63,  California  State  Department  of  Agriculture,  Sacramento, 
California. 


i  Assistant  Pomologist  in  the  Experiment  Station. 


4  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 

With  the  large  crop  of  1926  in  practically  all  sections,  prices 
received  for  California  apples  were  extremely  low.  However,  the 
eight-year  averages  of  total  value,  when  compared  with  comparable 
figures  of  other  deciduous  fruits  during  the  same  period,  show  the 
value  of  California's  apple  crop  to  have  been  approximately  three 
times  that  of  either  cherries  or  shipping  plums,  three  times  the  almond 
crop,  about  one  million  and  a  half  dollars  in  excess  of  the  pear  crop, 
and  almost  as  great  as  that  of  apricot  crop. 

In  1920  and  1921  rather  extensive  new  plantings  were  made  in 
Sonoma,  Butte,  San  Bernardino,  Kern,  and  Inyo  counties.  During 
the  past  five  years  new  plantings  have  not  been  so  extensive  except 
in  Sonoma  and  Tuolumne  counties.  The  total  number  of  non-bearing 
trees  for  the  state  now  shows  a  slight  decline,  while  the  bearing 
acreage  shows  a  gradual  and  consistent  increase.  With  the  exception 
of  1923,  a  heavy  crop  year,  production  has  been  relatively  uniform. 
Yields  on  the  whole  are  dependable,  not  being  so  seriously  affected 
by  frosts  and  drought  as  are  the  orchards  of  the  eastern  states. 


SOIL  AND   CLIMATIC    REQUIREMENTS   OF   THE    APPLE 

Although  the  apple  is  widely  adapted  to  climatic  and  soil  con- 
ditions, commercial  apple  production  in  California  is  limited  to  certain 
rather  well  defined  sections,  those  receiving  coastal  influences  or  those 
in  the  interior  at  an  altitude  of  from  two  to  four  thousand  feet. 
Early  summer  varieties  may  prove  fairly  successful  in  certain  interior 
valley  locations  but  often  the  fruit  is  prevented  from  attaining  its 
proper  perfection  by  the  excessive  heat,  low  humidity,  and  strong, 
drying  winds.  Winter  varieties  are  entirely  unsuited  to  the  above 
conditions,  requiring  for  their  best  development  moderate  summer 
temperatures  with  sunny  days,  a  relatively  long  but  slow  growing 
season,  and  at  harvest  time  sharp,  frosty  nights. 

Apple  orchards  have  been  planted  on  both  stiff  heavy  clay  and 
on  extremely  sandy  soils.  Where  possible,  however,  an  intermediate 
type  of  soil  ranging  from  clay  loam  to  silt  or  sandy  loam  should  be 
selected.  Such  soils  are  easier  to  work  than  those  which  are  heavier, 
they  possess  more  fertility,  and  retain  more  moisture  than  the  sandy 
soils.  Good  drainage  is  essential  as  the  tree  roots  should  be  able  to 
strike  to  a  considerable  depth  without  reaching  the  water  table. 
Shallow  soils  or  those  underlaid  with  hardpan  or  gravel  should  be 
avoided.  While  good  fertility  is  to  be  desired,  chemical  composition 
of  the  soil,  so  long  as  not  strongly  alkali,  is  of  secondary  importance 
to  its  physical  properties. 


BUL.  42:1]  APPLE   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA  5 

Different  varieties  of  apples  often  show  special  suitability  to 
certain  types  of  soil.  In  the  Watsonville  section  the  Yellow  Newtown 
variety  does  better  on  the  heavier  soils  than  the  Yellow  Bellflower. 
The  Gravenstein,  likewise,  is  apparently  very  well  adapted  to  the 
Gold  Ridge  fine,  sandy  loam  of  the  Sebastopol  section.  With  only  a 
few  varieties,  however,  have  such  soil  adaptations  been  determined 
with  any  degree  of  certainty. 

Most  apple  orchards  of  California  are  dependent  entirely  upon 
natural  rainfall  for  their  water  supply.  It  has  generally  been  thought 
that  where  the  average  annual  precipitation  amounts  to  as  much  as 
twenty  inches,  that  amount  was  sufficient  for  satisfactory  tree  growth. 
While  this  amount  may,  under  favorable  soil  and  climatic  conditions 
produce  satisfactory  tree  growth  the  first  few  years,  when  the  trees 
reach  bearing  age  it  is  likely  to  prove  inadequate.  In  some  regions 
where  the  rainfall  is  as  much  as  forty  inches,  irrigation  has  proved 
decidedly  beneficial.  This  may  be  due  to  an  open,  porous  soil  which 
is  not  retentive  of  moisture ;  also  to  the  fact  that  all  of  the  rain  comes 
at  a  season  when  the  trees  are  dormant. 

The  actual  amount  of  rain  therefore  is  not  of  so  great  importance 
as  the  season  at  which  it  comes,  the  location  of  the  section  with  refer- 
ence to  the  coast,  and  the  topography  and  texture  of  the  soil.  Bearing 
trees  need  an  adequate  water  supply  to  produce  and  bring  to  proper 
size  a  large  crop  of  fruit.  In  most  sections,  rains  are  not  expected 
during  the  latter  part  of  the  growing  season,  hence  irrigation  facilities 
will  enable  one  to  apply  water  to  the  trees  when  most  needed. 

APPLE    DISTRICTS 

As  related  to  the  climatic  requirements  just  mentioned,  figure  1 
shows  the  relative  importance  of  apple  production  in  the  different 
counties  of  the  state.  The  bulk  of  production  centers  in  the  Pajaro 
Valley  in  Santa  Cruz  and  Monterey  counties,  and  adjacent  to 
Sebastopol  in  Sonoma  County.  Ranking  third  in  importance  is  the 
Yucaipa  section  in  San  Bernardino  County.  Others  having  more  than 
1000  acres  of  bearing  trees  are  Riverside,  Tulare,  Kern,  Fresno, 
Mendocino,  Tuolumne,  Inyo,  and  Los  Angeles  counties.  Still  others 
containing  smaller  acreages  have  limited  sections  well  suited  to  apple 
growing. 

Watsonville  District. — The  Pajaro  Valley  or  Watsonville  section 
is  both  the  oldest  and  largest  section  of  the  state.  The  plantings 
consist  of  Yellow  Newtowns  approximately  60  per  cent,  Yellow  Bell- 
flowers  30  per  cent,  and  miscellaneous  varieties,  mostly  Pearmains, 


6  UNIVERSITY   OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 

10  per  cent.  The  soils  vary  from  porous  sandy  loams  to  clay  loams 
and  clays  on  the  terraces  and  slopes,  and  from  sandy  loams  to  clays 
to  clay-adobes  on  the  valley  floors.  With  an  average  annual  rainfall 
of  twenty  inches  or  more,  rather  cool  temperatures  and  high  humidity, 
irrigation  is  not  generally  practiced.     On  account  of  the  climatic 


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Acreage  of  Apples 
in  Co/ffornia 

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Sani~a   Cruz 
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Fig.  1. — Outline  map  of  California  showing  apple  acreage  by  counties. 
From  California  Crop  Eeport,  1925. 


conditions,  red  varieties  seldom  attain  high  color.  Eliminating  a  small 
percentage  of  the  poorest  producing  orchards,  average  yields  probably 
are  from  400  *  to  450  packed  boxes  to  the  acre,  while  from  the  best 
orchards  800  to  1000  boxes  are  frequently  secured.  Crop  failures  are 
rare. 


BUL.425]  APPLE   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA  7 

The  district  is  well  provided  with  commercial  packing  houses  and 
cold  storage  facilities.  Several  small  cooperative  selling  organizations 
are  in  existence,  although  the  major  part  of  the  crop  is  sold  to  cash 
buyers,  who  do  their  own  harvesting  and  packing.  Seasonal  contracts 
are  often  made  for  the  crop  at  the  time  the  trees  are  in  blossom. 

Although  fogs  are  frequent,  fungous  diseases  are  relatively  few; 
apple  mildew  and  the  various  fungi  causing  heart  rot  or  wood  decay 
are  the  most  troublesome.  Codling  moth,  aphis,  and  the  leaf  roller 
are  the  most  important  insects.  Fruit  of  the  Yellow  Newtown  variety 
from  this  section  is  subject  to  an  internal  browning  of  the  flesh  which 
lowers  its  quality  and  commercial  value.  This  trouble  seems  due  to 
climatic  factors.  Its  develpoment  in  storage  can  be  reduced  somewhat 
by  holding  the  fruit  at  36°  F  rather  than  at  32°  F. 

There  has  been  little  additional  planting  of  apples  in  this  section 
during  the  past  ten  years,  new  plantings  being  mostly  pears  and 
apricots. 

Sevastopol  District. — The  Sebastopol  district  of  Sonoma  County 
will,  as  the  non-bearing  trees  come  into  production,  be  very  similar  in 
acreage  to  that  of  the  Pajaro  Valley.  The  orchards  are  located  mainly 
on  the  eastern  slope  of  Gold  Ridge,  a  low  elevation  varying  from  a 
narrow  strip  to  seven  miles  in  width  and  approximately  fourteen  miles 
in  length.  The  soil  is  a  very  fine,  sandy  loam  well  suited  to  apples. 
The  topography  is  naturally  rolling. 

From  the  standpoint  of  climate  this  region,  though  coastal,  par- 
takes somewhat  of  inland  valley  conditions.  Day  temperatures  are 
considerably  higher  than  in  the  Pajaro  Valley,  while  the  rainfall  is 
about  one-third  greater.  Irrigation  is  not  generally  practiced  but 
would  doubtless  be  beneficial  were  water  available.  Approximately 
75  per  cent  of  the  acreage  is  devoted  to  the  Gravenstein  variety,  for 
which  a  wide  reputation  has  been  established.  Only  the  best  of  the 
total  crop  is  shipped,  most  of  the  lower  grades  and  miscellaneous 
varieties  being  dried.  From  35  to  50  per  cent  of  the  total  crop  is 
thus  utilized  annually.  The  district  is  well  provided  with  selling 
organizations,  evaporators,  and  vinegar  plants. 

Yucaipa^San  Bernardino  County. — The  Yucaipa  district  of  San 
Bernardino  County,  located  a  few  miles  east  of  Redlands  on  the  mesa 
lands  at  an  elevation  of  2500  to  3000  feet,  comprises  some  15,000 
acres  of  tillable  land  with  approximately  5000  acres  planted  to  apples. 

In  contrast  to  the  older  sections  above  mentioned,  Yucaipa  plant- 
ings are  of  recent  date,  the  first  trees  being  planted  about  1912.  The 
district  is  therefore  just  arriving  at  good  commercial  production.  The 
soil,  for  the  most  part,  is  a  sandy  loam  with  a  considerable  mixture 


8  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT   STATION 

of  gravel.  The  climate  is  characterized  by  sunny  days  and  cool  nights. 
Frosts  and  snow  are  common  during  the  winter  season.  The  annual 
rainfall  of  twenty  inches  is  supplemented  by  irrigation  water  from 
wells. 

Rome  Beauty,  Winesap,  Delicious,  and  King  David  are  the  chief 
varieties.  The  production  thus  far  has  been  largely  sold  in  Los 
Angeles  and  other  local  markets. 

Other  parts  of  the  county  in  which  apples  are  produced  are  Chino, 
a  well  developed  area  near  Ontario,  Adelanto  and  Victorville,  high 
desert  districts  adjacent  to  Victorville,  and  the  Oak  Glen  and  Devore 
mountain  sections.  While  in  these  sections  plantings  are  limited, 
excellent  fruit  can  be  produced. 

Riverside  County. — The  only  commercial  apple  section  of  River- 
side County  is  that  adjacent  to  Beaumont.  Although  smaller,  and 
the  orchards  more  scattering,  the  district  in  general  is  similar  to  that 
of  Yucaipa.  Much  of  the  fruit  is  sold  unpacked  in  lug  boxes  on  the 
Los  Angeles  market,  although  a  considerable  percentage  of  the  crop 
is  packed  and  shipped  into  Arizona  and  Texas. 

Los  Angeles  County. — The  major  part  of  the  acreage  in  Los 
Angeles  County  is  located  in  the  vicinity  of  Downey,  with  smaller 
plantings  in  the  Antelope  Valley  and  near  Santa  Monica.  Most  of  the 
fruit  produced  is  sold  locally  or  used  for  by-products. 

Inyo  County. — Production  in  Inyo  County  is  confined  to  the 
Owens  Valley,  centering  largely  in  the  sections  adjacent  to  Bishop, 
Manzanar,  and  Big  Pine.  This  valley,  located  at  an  altitude  of  3000 
to  4500  feet,  possesses  ideal  climatic  conditions  for  producing  fruit 
of  high  color  and  good  keeping  quality.  Winesap  and  Stayman  Wine- 
sap  are  leading  varieties  grown.  Lack  of  transportation  facilities, 
and  in  some  instances  sufficient  water  for  irrigation  purposes,  are  the 
chief  disadvantages.  Since  the  purchase  of  the  water  rights  of  this 
section  by  the  city  of  Los  Angeles,  the  city  is  also  purchasing  and 
operating  a  large  percentage  of  the  more  profitable  orchards. 

Tuolumne  County. — Plantings  in  Tuolumne  County  are  chiefly 
around  Soulsbyville,  Sonora,  and  Tuolumne,  at  an  altitude  of  from 
1800  to  2500  feet.  Winesap,  Rome  Beauty,  and  Delicious  are  the 
leading  varieties.  Excellent  quality  fruit  is  produced  and  good  prices 
have  been  received.  Both  production  and  plantings  are  on  the 
increase. 

Tulare  County. — The  orchards  of  Tulare  County  are  rather  widely 
distributed  over  the  county  from  north  to  south,  being  located  in  the 
foothills  along  the  streams  at  altitudes  of  from  1800  to  2500  feet. 
The  general  topography  is  rough  with  a.  decomposed  granite  soil. 


BuL.  425]  APPLE    GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA  9 

Winesap  and  Stayman  Winesap  are  the  leading  varieties.  Good  fruit 
is  produced  where  the  orchards  are  given  the  proper  care.  The  crop 
is  sold  locally. 

Kern  County. — Commercial  production  of  apples  in  Kern  County 
centers  near  Tehachapi  at  altitudes  ranging  between  3000  and  4500 
feet.  The  topography  is  rolling  and  the  soil  is  a  clay  loam.  Jonathan, 
Gano,  Arkansas  Black,  Winesap,  Delicious,  and  Winter  Banana  are 
the  principal  varieties.  Most  of  the  crop  is  disposed  of  in  Los  Angeles 
and   Bakersfield.      Unfavorable   weather   conditions,   blight,    lack    of 


Fig.  2. — Local  markets  often  prefer  their  fruit  unpacked. 
Small  lug  boxes  form  an  attractive  package. 

water,  and  absentee  ownership  have  often  reduced  the  profitableness 
of  the  crop.  However,  over  a  period  of  years  fair  returns  have  been 
received. 

Fresno  County. — Apples  are  grown  in  Fresno  County  on  a  small 
scale  at  Squaw  Valley,  Dunlap,  Miramonte,  Pinehurst,  and  Auberry, 
foothill  and  mountain  valle}^  portions  of  the  county,  at  altitudes  of 
from  1700  to  2500  feet.  The  natural  rainfall  of  from  seventeen  to 
twenty-four  inches  is  supplemented  in  some  regions  by  a  small  amount 
of  irrigation. 

Arkansas  Black,  Ben  Davis,  Winesap,  Jonathan,  Delicious,  and 
Bellflower  are  the  chief  varieties  produced.  Most  of  the  crop  is  sold 
locally  in  the  county. 

Mendocino  County. — Orchards  of  Mendocino  County  are  somewhat 
scattered,  with  the  main  center  of  production  in  the  Anderson  Valley 


10  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT   STATION 

about  midway  between  Ukiah  and  the  coast.  The  orchards  are  located 
on  cut-over  redwood  lands  and  the  trees  are  grown  without  irrigation. 

Baldwin,  Rome  Beauty,  Rhode  Island  Greening,  Gano,  King,  Ben 
Davis,  and  Wagener,  as  well  as  a  large  number  of  less  popular 
varieties,  are  successfully  grown.  Since  all  fruit  produced  must  be 
hauled  considerable  distances  over  mountain  roads  to  rail  transpor- 
tation, successful  marketing  of  the  crop  is  a  most  important  problem. 

Santa  Clara  County. — The  majority  of  the  apple  orchards  of  Santa 
Clara  County  are  in  the  bay  region  from  Mountain  View  to  Milpitas, 
with  a  less  number  in  the  mountain  sections.  Yellow  Newtown,  "White 
Pearmain,  Smith  Cider,  Alexander,  and  White  Astrachan,  in  the 
order  named,  are  the  leading  varieties.  At  the  present  time  planting 
is  not  on  the  increase,  the  opinion  being  that  the  section  is  better 
suited  to  the  production  of  pears. 


VARIETIES 

CHOICE  OF  VAEIETIES 

Of  several  thousand  named  varieties  of  apples  twelve  or  fifteen 
comprise  the  bulk  of  the  commercial  crop  of  the  United  States.  In 
California  a  large  proportion  of  the  crop  is  limited  to  Yellow  New- 
town, Yellow  Bellflower,  and  Gravenstein.  This  fact,  however, 
does  not  mean  that  future  plantings  should  be  limited  to  these  three 
sorts  and  that  other  standard  varieties,  or  even  new  introductions, 
should  not  have  a  place  in  commercial  orchards.  In  fact  some  of  the 
lesser  grown  sorts  are  under  certain  conditions  proving  as  profitable 
as  those  mentioned.  Some  thought  should  therefore  be  given  to  the 
selection  of  varieties,  keeping  in  mind  the  following  factors. 

Adaptability  to  the  Section. — In  districts  of  commercial  importance 
there  are  usually  a  number  of  varieties  which  are  proving  more  profit- 
able than  others.  Since  these  have  been  determined  by  trial  they 
should  be  used  as  a  guide  at  least  in  future  plantings.  As  an  example, 
Watsonville  under  coastal  conditions,  has  specialized  on  the  Yellow 
Newtown  and  Yellow  Bellflower,  both  yellow  varieties.  Interior  sec- 
tions at  relatively  high  altitudes  grow  neither  of  these  to  any  extent 
but  rather  such  colored  varieties  as  Jonathan,  Winesap,  King  David, 
Rome  Beauty,  or  Delicious.  To  attempt  to  produce  these  varieties 
under  coastal  conditions  would  result  in  fruit  of  inferior  color. 
Coastal  sections  are  therefore  more  restricted  in  their  choice  of 
varieties  than  foothill  or  mountain  sections.  At  low  altitudes  in  the 
valleys  where  high  summer  temperatures  exist,  only  fast  growing, 


BuL.  425]  APPLE   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA  11 

early  maturing  varieties  are  suggested.  In  sections  where  strong 
winds  during  the  late  summer  often  blow  a  considerable  part  of  the 
crop  from  the  trees,  an  effort  should  be  made  to  secure  early  maturing 
varieties  and  to  avoid  those  which  have  a  natural  tendency  to  drop. 
Variety  characteristics. — In  addition  to  this  fault  of  dropping, 
varieties  should  be  considered  with  reference  to  vigor  of  trees  and 
regularity  of  crops.  Weaker  growing  varieties,  such  as  Grimes 
Golden  or  Wagener;  those  particularly  susceptible  to  prevalent 
diseases;  and  those  of  irregular  bearing  habits,  as  Spitzenburg  and 
Northern  Spy,  are  to  be  avoided  unless  past  experience  has  shown 
that  despite  the  higher  cost  of  production  the  variety  has  proven 
profitable.  In  some  instances  quantity  is  sacrificed  for  quality,  but 
in  commercial  orchards  this  is  practical  only  within  certain  limits. 

Provision  for  Cross  Pollination. — Experiments  conducted  by  the 
Pomology  Division  have  shown  that  nearly  all  varieties  of  apples 
under  California  conditions  may  be  considered  practically  self -sterile. 
Jonathan,  Delicious,  Spitzenburg,  and  Yellow  Newtown  are  possible 
exceptions,  but  even  these  seem  benefited  by  cross  pollination.  With 
the  tendency  to  restrict  plantings  in  commercial  orchards  to  one  or 
two  varieties  the  question  of  pollination  should  therefore  not  be  over- 
looked. With  the  possible  exception  of  the  Yellow  Bellflower  when 
crossed  with  Yellow  Newtown  pollen  under  Pajaro  Valley  conditions, 
no  cases  of  inter-sterility  have  been  reported,  hence  in  choosing  varie- 
ties for  pollinizers  it  is  necessary  to  consider  only  the  season  of 
blossoming  and  in  some  cases  the  relative  amount  of  pollen  produced. 
Summer  varieties  as  a  rule  bloom  slightly  earlier  than  fall  or  winter 
varieties. 

Market  Demands. — While  home  orchards  should  properly  contain 
varieties  of  one's  personal  choice  as  to  quality  or  flavor,  commercial 
orchards  should  contain  only  those  of  recognized  importance.  The 
average  retail  buyer  of  apples  has  a  very  limited  knowledge  of  varie- 
ties and  usually  confines  his  purchases  to  those  with  which  he  is 
familiar.  The  planting  of  new  or  untried  varieties  in  a  commercial 
orchard  should  therefore  be  very  limited  unless  they  are  particularly 
attractive  and  possess  some  outstanding  merit  which  the  trade  will 
quickly  recognize.  The  Delicious,  a  comparatively  new  variety, 
quickly  gained  a  reputation  on  account  of  its  high  flavor.  It  also  had 
the  additional  advantage  of  being  easily  recognized  on  account  of  the 
prominent  knobbing  around  the  blossom  end.  With  the  exception  of 
Delicious,  however,  the  principal  varieties  of  today  have  been  known 
and  grown  commercially  from  fifty  to  over  one  hundred  years. 


12  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 

As  commercial  production  also  implies  the  handling  and  shipping 
of  fruit  in  relatively  large  lots,  plantings  should  be  limited  to  a  few 
varieties.  The  following  sorts  include  the  more  important  commercial 
varieties  of  the  state  and  several  which  are  considered  valuable  for 
home  use.  They  are  listed  in  their  approximate  order  of  ripening, 
although  there  will  be  considerable  variation  in  this  respect,  depending 
upon  the  section  in  which  the  fruit  is  grown. 

The  illustrations  shown  are  approximately  half  size  for  the  variety. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  VARIETIES 

Yellow  Transparent.  Origin  Eussia.  An  important  early  variety 
in  the  eastern  states  but  little  grown  in  California.  Fruit  of  good  size, 
roundish  conic,  of  attractive  greenish  to  whitish  yellow  color;  thin 
skin;  white,  moderately  fine-grained,  tender  flesh;  sprightly  subacid, 
and  excellent  for  cooking  purposes.  Fruit  easily  bruised.  Tree 
moderately  vigorous  and  subject  to  blight,  but  for  an  early  yellow 
apple  under  valley  conditions  this  variety  is  suggested  for  trial. 
Season,  June  15  to  July  15. 

Red  Astrachan.  Origin  Russia.  A  widely  known  variety  recom- 
mended for  early  home  use  and  for  local  markets.  The  fruit  is  of 
medium  size,  rather  irregular  in  shape,  usually  roundish  to  slightly 
flattened ;  skin  thin  and  tender,  greenish  yellow  to  striped  or  a  deep 
red  in  color  covered  with  a  pale,  bluish  bloom.  Flesh  white,  juicy, 
crisp  and  of  good  quality  for  both  dessert  and  culinary  use.  The  tree 
is  hardy,  vigorous,  and  an  early  and  regular  bearer.  The  principal 
defects  are,  the  fruit  is  not  of  uniform  size,  is  often  small,  tends  to 
drop,  and  is  not  a  good  shipper.     Season,  July. 

White  Astrachan.  Origin  Russia.  White  Astrachan  is  another 
variety  which  has  proven  well  adapted  to  most  parts  of  the  state  and 
is  recommended  for  commercial  planting  as  a  summer  variety  in  the 
Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  valleys.  The  fruit  is  of  large  to  very 
large  size,  almost  round,  flattened  at  each  end;  skin  greenish  white 
with  faint  streaks  of  red  and  covered  with  white  bloom.  Flesh  white, 
juicy,  crisp,  somewhat  coarse  and  acid :  primarily  a  cooking  variety. 
Tree  large,  vigorous,  and  productive.  One  of  the  best  early  varieties 
for  local  market.  Fruit  bruises  easily  and  consequently  will  not  ship 
long  distances.    Season,  July  and  August. 

Gravenstein.  Origin  probabty  Germany.  The  Gravenstein  is  the 
most  popular  and  most  extensively  grown  summer  apple  in  California. 
The  fruit  is  of  medium  to  large  size,  slightly  flattened,  broad  at  the 
stem  end  and  a  little  one-sided  or  angular.  Stem  short  and  deeply 
set  in  the  cavity.  Skin  a  greenish  yellow  to  orange  yellow  overlaid 
with  broken  stripes  of  light  and  dark  red.  The  flesh  is  tender,  crisp, 
highly  aromatic  and  of  very  good  to  best  quality  both  as  a  summer 
dessert  apple  and  for  culinary  use.  Being  the  earliest  variety  grown 
to  any  extent  commercially  and  a  good  shipper  it  generally  brings 


Bul.  425]  APPLE   GROWING   IN    CALIFORNIA  13 

relatively  good  returns.  Trees  are  usually  large  and  vigorous,  come 
into  bearing  fairly  early  and  produce  good  crops.  The  chief  defects 
of  the  variety  are  that  the  fruit  drops  badly,  causing  a  high  per- 
centage of  windfalls,  and  that  it  seems  susceptible  to  bitter  pit. 
Several  pickings  are  also  necessary  on  account  of  irregular  size  and 
coloring  and  it  is  difficult  to  remove  one  specimen  from  a  cluster 
without  the  others  dropping.  Recommended  both  for  commercial  and 
home  use.     Season  in  Sonoma  County,  July  and  August. 

Alexander.  Origin  Russia.  A  rather  widely  distributed  variety 
but  of  limited  planting  in  California.  It  is  one  of  the  more  important 
summer  varieties  in  Santa  Clara  and  Napa  counties.  The  fruit  is 
large,  roundish  conic  to  slightly  oblate  conic  in  shape,  and  red  or 
striped  in  color.  Flesh  white  to  slightly  yellow,  rather  coarse  but  of 
fair  quality  for  culinary  purposes.  Cracking  of  the  skin  and  flesh 
around  the  stem  and  premature  dropping  are  common  defects  of  the 
variety.  The  fruit  ripens  continuously  over  a  period  of  several  weeks. 
Trees  vigorous  but  not  always  good  bearers.   Season,  July  and  August. 

Mcintosh.  Origin  Canada.  Mcintosh  is  a  variety  of  excellent 
quality  for  home  use  and  well  adapted  to  local  markets.  It  is  not 
recommended  for  commercial  planting  on  account  of  the  tender  flesh 
of  the  fruit,  its  susceptibility  to  apple  scab,  and  the  tendency  of  the 
apples  to  drop  from  the  tree  prematurely.  The  fruit  is  of  medium 
and  uniform  size;  roundish  to  roundish  oblate  in  shape,  regular  or 
faintly  ribbed.  The  skin  is  thin,  smooth  and  tender,  readily  separat- 
ing from  the  flesh.  Color  bright  red,  striped  with  carmine  to  dark 
purplish-red  with  stripes  obscure,  overspread  with  thin  lilac  bloom. 
The  flesh  is  very  tender,  usually  snow  white  color,  fine  grained,  crisp, 
and  tender,  very  aromatic  and  of  mild  subacid  to  sweet  flavor.  Quality 
very  good  to  best.    Season,  September  and  October. 

Rhode  Island  Greening.  Origin  probably  Rhode  Island.  Among 
the  older  orchards  in  the  coast  counties  Rhode  Island  Greening  is 
frequently  found.  While  an  apple  of  very  good  quality  and  well 
adapted  for  drying,  other  varieties  are  considered  more  valuable  for 
California.  The  fruit  is  of  medium  to  large  size,  roundish  oblate  in 
shape  and  of  dark  green  to  greenish  yellow  color.  Flesh  yellow,  fine 
grained,  tender,  juicy  and  sprightly  subacid.  Quality  very  good. 
Season,  fall  and  early  winter. 

Yellow  Bellflower.  Origin  New  Jersey.  Yellow  Bellflower  is  one 
of  the  best  known  early  fall  market  varieties  grown  in  the  state,  and 
in  the  Pajaro  Valley  stands  second  in  importance  only  to  the  Yellow 
Newtown.  The  fruit  is  of  large  size,  oblong,  ribbed  and  tapering  toward 
the  blossom  end.  The  skin  is  of  a  lemon  color  to  yellow,  marked  with 
prominent  dots  and  with  a  pink  blush  on  the  exposed  cheek.  Flesh 
nearly  white,  tender,  juicy  and  crisp  with  a  subacid  flavor.  Quality 
not  high  but  a  good  fall  variety  for  general  use.  Although  the  tree 
is  a  strong  grower  and  good  producer  the  fruit  varies  in  size  and 
quality,  and  necessitates  care  in  handling.  Prices  received  are  usually 
somewhat  lower  than  for  later  varieties.  For  these  reasons  its  planting 
is  not  being  extended.     Season,  September  to  November. 


14  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT   STATION 

Jonathan.  Origin  New  York.  The  Jonathan  is  a  seedling  of  the 
Spitzenburg  and  in  numerous  respects  not  dissimilar  to  it.  It  is 
important  among  the  varieties  grown  in  Riverside,  San  Bernardino, 
San  Diego,  Mendoicno,  Humboldt,  and  Sonoma  counties.  It  does  well 
in  most  all  sections  where  fall  and  winter  apples  are  grown.  Having 
this  wide  adaptation,  extended  planting  is  not  to  be  encouraged  on 
account  of  the  wide  competition  from  other  sources.  In  shape  and 
color  the  variety  resembles  the  Spitzenburg  but  lacks  the  conspicuous 
dots  on  the  skin  of  the  former.  Flesh  light  yellow,  tender,  juicy 
and  sprightly  subacid,  and  of  excellent  quality  for  all  purposes  A 
good  storage  variety  for  a  fall  apple.  Tree  vigorous  under  good  con- 
ditions, comes  into  bearing  early  and  is  a  good  producer.  Season, 
September  to  January. 

King  David.  Origin  Arkansas.  A  very  rich  red  apple  about  the 
size  of  and  somewhat  similar  to  Jonathan.  While  not  of  so  high 
dessert  quality  it  is  a  very  attractive  market  variety  and  has  been 
planted  to  a  considerable  extent  for  the  fall  trade.  Fruit  of  medium 
size,  roundish  conic,  usually  of  a  deep  solid  red  color.  Flesh  yellow, 
firm,  crisp,  moderately  tender  and  of  good  quality.  Season,  September 
to  December. 

Tompkins  King.  Origin  New  York.  A  variety  of  secondary  com- 
mercial importance,  grown  in  mountain  sections,  and  popular  in 
Humboldt  and  Mendocino  counties.  The  fruit  is  large,  round  or 
globular,  angular  or  ribbed,  yellowish,  shaded  with  red  and  striped 
and  splashed  with  bright  carmine;  dots  numerous  and  conspicuous. 
Flesh  yellowish,  moderately  coarse,  rich  juicy  and  tender.  Mild  sub- 
acid flavor  and  of  very  good  quality.    Season,  September  to  October. 

Grimes.  Origin  West  Virginia.  Grimes,  better  known  as  Grimes 
Golden,  is  highly  esteemed  as  both  a  dessert  and  culinary  apple.  How- 
ever, since  the  fruit  requires  very  careful  handling  and  the  trees  are 
inclined  to  make  a  weak  growth  and  produce  light  crops,  the  variety 
is  grown  only  to  a  limited  extent.  Where  it  can  be  produced  success- 
fully it  is  an  excellent  variety  for  home  use.  The  fruit  is  of  a  clear 
rich,  yellow  color ;  medium  to  large  in  size ;  roundish  oblong  in  shape 
and  often  flattened  or  truncated  at  the  ends.  The  basin,  or  depression 
at  the  blossom  end  is  abrupt,  deep  and  moderately  wide.  Skin  tough 
and  covered  with  light  russet  dots.  Flesh  yellow,  firm,  tender  and 
crisp.  Flavor  mild  subacid,  rich  and  aromatic.  Quality  excellent. 
Season,  fall  and  early  winter. 

Winter  Banana.  Origin  Indiana.  Where  well  grown  Winter 
Banana  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  all  varieties.  The  fruits  are 
large,  shapely,  of  a  pale  waxen  yellow  color  with  a  decided  pink  or 
sometimes  red  cheek.  It  is  usually  characterized  by  a  distinct  suture 
line  on  one  side  extending  from  the  basin  to  the  cavity.  Flesh  pale 
yellow,  crisp,  tender,  mild  subacid  and  of  a  distinct  musky  fragrance. 
Quality  very  good.  Fruit  bruises  extremely  easily  and  not  well  suited 
for  commercial  handling.  Grown  both  in  foothill  and  coastal  sections. 
Season,  October  to  November. 


BUL.  425]  APPLE   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA  15 

Delicious.  Origin  Iowa.  The  Delicious,  introduced  only  thirty 
years  ago,  is  widely  distributed  and  as  a  dessert  apple  is  most  favor- 
ably known.  It  is  found  in  most  of  the  apple  sections  of  higher 
altitude  and  its  planting  in  these  section  has  been  extended  each  year. 
The  fruit  has  a  very  characteristic  shape,  usually  decidedly  tapering, 
somewhat  irregular  and  with  five  very  prominent  knob-like  pro- 
trusions at  the  blossom  end.  When  well  grown  it  is  of  a  dull,  dark 
red  color;  flesh  white,  fine  grained,  very  mild  acid,  aromatic,  of 
delightful  flavor  and  excellent  dessert  quality.  It  is  a  general  favorite 
on  the  fruit  stands  and  always  sells  at  a  high  price.  The  tree  is  one 
of  the  strongest  and  most  vigorous  growers,  aphis  resistant,  a  late 
bloomer  and  good  pollinizer.  The  weaknesses  of  the  variety  are  that 
unless  well  colored  it  is  of  poor  flavor ;  it  does  not  cook  well,  the  fruit 
is  inclined  to  drop  and  under  ordinary  temperatures  soon  becomes 
mealy.    Season,  October  to  December. 

White  Pearmain.  Origin  uncertain.  An  old  favorite  variety  of 
high  quality,  adapted  primarily  for  home  use  and  local  trade.  Rather 
widely  adapted  but  grown  in  California  primarily  in  sections  having 
coastal  influences  where  red  sorts  do  not  color  well.  The  trees  are 
vigorous  and  regular  bearers.  Fruit  medium  to  large  size,  oblong 
conic  in  shape  and  of  pale  greenish  color,  often  with  a  decided  blush 
on  the  exposed  cheek.  The  surface  of  the  skin  is  covered  with 
numerous,  small,  brown  dots.  Flesh  yellowish,  tender,  crisp,  juicy, 
very  mildly  subacid  and  of  excellent  flavor,  somewhat  resembling 
Delicious.     Season,  October  to  December. 

Wagener.  Origin  New  York.  Although  a  variety  of  relatively 
small  importance  in  the  state,  Wagener  is  frequently  found  in 
Mendocino,  Humboldt,  Napa,  and  Sonoma  counties.  Where  con- 
ditions are  favorable  for  its  growth,  it  is  an  excellent  fall  and  early 
winter  variety,  but  not  one  of  good  keeping  or  shipping  quality. 
The  trees  are  small,  upright  in  habit  of  growth,  and  come  into  bear- 
ing early.  While  only  moderately  vigorous,  good  crops  are  usually 
produced.  The  fruit  is  of  medium  size,  characterized  primarily  by  its 
flat  or  oblate  shape  and  by  being  broadly  ribbed  from  stem  to  blossom 
end.  The  skin  is  bright,  pinkish-red,  striped  with  darker  red  and 
often  streaked  with  a  thin  whitish  covering.  The  flesh  is  whitish, 
moderately  firm,  fine  grained,  tender,  crisp  and  juicy.  Flavor 
sprightly  subacid.  Quality  very  good  to  excellent.  Season,  October 
to  December. 

Baldwin.  Origin  Massachusetts.  Approximately  half  the  com- 
mercial crops  of  New  York  and  the  New  England  states  are  of  this 
variety  but  in  this  state  it  is  found  only  in  small  plantings  in  the 
northern  coast  counties  and  in  elevated  regions.  In  certain  of  these 
sections  it  seems  well  adapted  and  grows  to  a  high  degree  of  per- 
fection ;  in  others  it  does  not  color  as  well  as  is  desired.  The  variety, 
when  well  grown,  is  of  large  size,  roundish  conic,  deep,  bright  red 
in  color  with  a  few  rather  distinct  dots.  Flesh  yellowish-white,  crisp, 
juicy,  tender  and  mildly  subacid.  Quality  very  good  and  adapted 
for  general  market,  dessert  and  culinary  uses.  Season,  October  to 
December. 


16  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 

Esopus  (Spitzenburg).  Origin  New  York.  This  variety,  usually 
known  simply  as  Spitzenburg,  can  scarcely  be  excelled  as  a  good 
market  variety  possessing  high  quality  both  when  eaten  out  of  hand 
and  when  cooked.  The  fruit  is  of  good  size,  uniform  in  shape,  varying 
from  oblong  to  conic ;  skin  smooth,  covered  with  rich  red  and  marked 
with  numerous  conspicuous  yellowish  dots.  Flesh  yellowish,  firm, 
crisp,  tender,  juicy  and  sprightly  subacid.  One  of  the  most  attractive 
varieties  grown.  Unfortunately  the  defects  of  the  variety  are  such 
as  to  make  it  costly  to  produce  and  its  planting  is  generally  on  the 
decline.  The  trees  are  inclined  toward  shy  and  irregular  bearing  and 
though  fairly  healthy  are  nevertheless  subject  to  apple  scab,  aphis 
and,  in  some  sections,  to  blight.  The  character  of  growth  is  such  that 
long  pole-like  branches  (fig.  7)  are  formed  and  it  is  somewhat  difficult 
to  control  in  pruning.  For  the  above  reasons  its  planting  in  California 
is  limited.    Season,  November  to  February. 

Stayman  Winesap.  Origin  Kansas.  Stayman  Winesap  is  increas- 
ing in  popularity  and  is  now  successfully  grown  in  the  foothills, 
mountain  valleys,  and  at  points  of  higher  altitudes  in  the  interior 
valleys.  In  many  respects  the  fruit  resembles  its  parent,  the  Wine- 
sap, differing  from  it  by  possessing  less  color  but  growing  to  larger 
size.  The  flesh  is  also  more  tender,  requires  careful  handling,  and 
does  not  keep  so  well  in  storage.  It  is  characterized  as  medium  to 
large  in  size,  round  conic  in  shape,  with  smooth,  thick  skin  covered 
with  dull  red  and  marked  with  light  gray  and  russet  dots.  Flesh 
yellow,  fine  grained,  very  tender,  crisp,  juicy  and  of  pleasant  subacid 
flavor.  Dessert  quality  very  good.  Among  the  shortcomings  of  the 
variety  are  that  it  may  fail  to  color  properly  in  certain  sections,  tends 
to  drop  when  mature,  requires  very  careful  handling  to  prevent  bruis- 
ing, and  is  subject  to  scald  in  cold  storage.  Season,  November  to 
December. 

Rome  Beauty.  Origin  Ohio.  Rome  Beauty  is  one  of  the  leading 
commercial  apples  of  the  country  and  has  an  established  reputation 
in  all  markets.  While  not  of  high  dessert  quality,  the  large  attractive 
fruits  are  especially  desired  for  baking  purposes.  It  handles  and 
ships  well  and  brings  good  market  returns.  It  is  a  general  favorite 
in  the  Yucaipa  and  Beaumont  sections  of  the  state  and  also  in  the 
northern  coastal  districts.  Owing  to  its  late  blooming  habit  it  is 
recommended  in  sections  of  higher  altitudes,  especially  where  late 
spring  frosts  make  growing  of  other  varieties  precarious.  The  trees, 
while  only  of  medium  size  are,  under  good  conditions,  vigorous,  come 
into  bearing  early  and  produce  uniform  crops.  Much  of  the  fruit  is 
borne  on  the  ends  of  branches,  which  may  whip  badly  in  sections  of 
high  winds.  The  variety  is  also  rather  subject  to  the  attacks  of  aphis. 
Fruit  uniformly  large,  smooth  round  to  round  conic;  skin  thick, 
smooth,  yellow,  shaded  and  striped  with  bright  red  to  solid  red  on 
exposed  cheek,  sprinkled  with  conspicuous  yellow  dots.  Stem  set  in 
a  very  broad  shallow,  usually  green  cavity.  Flesh  yellow,  firm,  crisp 
and  of  mild  subacid  flavor.  Quality  fair.  Season,  October  to 
February. 


\ 


a.  Yellow  Transparent 


&.  Red  Astraclian 


c.  White  Astrachan 


d.  Gravenstem 


e.  Alexander 


/.  Mcintosh 


Plate  I.     Apple  Varieties 


a.  Ehode  Island  Greening  &<  Yellow  Bellflower 


c.  Jonathan 


d.  King  David 


e.   Tompkins  King 


/.  Grimes 


Plate  II.     Apple  Varieties 


a.  Winter  Banana 


b.  Delicious 


d.  Wagener 


c.  White  Pearmain 


e.  Baldwin 


/.  Esopus  (Spitzenburg) 


Plate  III.     Apple  Varieties 


~b.  Eome  Beauty 


a.  Stayman  Winesap 


c.  Winesap 


d.  Gano 


e.  Yellow  Newtown 


/.  Arkansas  Black 


Plate  IV.     Apple  Varieties 


BUL.  425]  APPLE   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA  17 

Winesap.  Origin  unknown.  The  Winesap  is  one  of  the  oldest 
and  most  cosmopolitan  sorts  and  is  a  general  market  favorite  as  a  late 
winter  variety.  It  is  grown  in  most  every  apple  section  of  the  country 
and  in  California  is  adapted  to  most  sections  other  than  those  exposed 
to  coastal  conditions  and  those  of  the  hot  interior  valleys.  It  grows 
to  a  high  degree  of  perfection  in  the  foothills  and  mountain  sections 
of  the  state.  The  trees  are  vigorous  and  productive.  Old  trees  have 
a  tendency  to  overbear  and  produce  small  fruit;  thinning  the  crop 
under  such  conditions  is  recommended.  Fruit  of  medium  size, 
roundish  to  conical;  skin  tough,  smooth,  bright  to  dark  red  with 
small  scattering  dots;  flesh  yellow,  firm,  crisp,  sprightly  subacid. 
Good  to  very  good  quality  both  for  dessert  and  culinary  uses.  Season, 
November  to  April. 

Gano.  Origin  uncertain,  probably  Missouri  or  Tennessee.  Gano, 
often  called  Black  Ben  Davis,  is  a  variety  similar  if  not  identical  to 
Ben  Davis  except  in  the  matter  of  color.  While  not  largely  grown  in 
California,  the  total  acreage  in  different  districts  of  higher  altitudes 
is  considerable.  The  variety  is  of  low  dessert  quality  but  excellent 
for  shipping  and  one  of  the  best  keeping  sorts.  The  trees  are  similar 
to  the  widely  known  Ben  Davis,  growing  rapidly,  bearing  early, 
regularly  and  abundantly.  The  fruit  is  medium  to  large  size ;  roundish 
conic,  regular  symmetrical  and  uniform  in  size  and  shape.  Skin 
smooth,  waxy,  light  yellow  but  mostly  overlaid  with  pinkish-red  to 
a  dark  purplish-red,  more  or  less  obscurely  striped;  prevailing 
color  red.  Dots  numerous,  small,  and  inconspicuous.  Flesh  white  to 
slightly  yellow,  firm,  rather  coarse  and  of  mild  subacid  flavor.  Season, 
November  to  February  or  later. 

Yellow  Newtown.  Origin  New  York.  With  the  Pajaro  Valley 
shipping  over  a  million  and  a  half  boxes  annually,  Yellow  Newtown 
easily  ranks  as  the  first  commercial  winter  variety  grown  in  the  state. 
Its  commercial  production  is  confined  almost  entirely  to  the  above 
mentioned  section.  The  fruit  grown  under  Pajaro  Valley  climatic 
conditions  is  usually  marked  by  a  russeting  of  the  skin,  which  detracts 
somewhat  from  the  general  appearance;  the  flesh  also  is  susceptible 
to  a  browning  around  the  core  in  storage.  The  trees  of  Yellow  New- 
town are  rather  slow  growing  but  bear  reasonably  early  and  are  pro- 
ductive. It  is  an  excellent  variety  for  late  winter  use.  Fruit  large, 
roundish  to  slightly  flat;  skin  green  to  yellow,  often  with  brownish 
red  cheek;  flesh  cream,  firm,  crisp,  juicy  and  of  very  good  quality. 
Season,  December  to  May. 

Arkansas  Black.  Origin  Arkansas.  This  variety,  often  confused 
with  the  variety  Arkansas  or  Mammoth  Black  Twig,  is  grown  in  the 
state  only  to  a  limited  extent.  It  is  suggested  by  nurserymen  as 
suitable  for  interior  sections  and  is  of  some  commercial  importance  in 
Butte  County.  The  fruit  is  roundish  and  uniform,  of  a  very  attrac- 
tive dark  color,  the  skin  being  decidedly  "waxy"  or  "oily"  to  the 
touch.  Flesh  a  deep  cream,  very  firm,  moderately  fine  grained,  crisp 
and  moderately  juicy.  Of  good  flavor  but  not  an  apple  of  high  quality. 
The  variety  ripens  in  the  late  fall  and  keeps  well. 


18  UNIVERSITY   OF    CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT   STATION 

Crab  Apples.2  While  of  comparatively  small  commercial  import- 
ance, crab  apples  are  highly  regarded  for  jelly  making  and  preserving 
purposes.  They  are  thus  grown  for  home  use  and  supply  a  limited 
demand  on  local  markets.  The  more  important  varieties  are  the 
Whitney,  Transcendent,  Hyslop,  Montreal  Beauty,  and  Large  Red 
Siberian.  Of  these  the  first  three  are  perhaps  in  greatest  demand 
commercially.  Red  Siberian  is  reported  as  being  successfully  grown 
in  most  parts  of  the  state. 


PROPAGATION  AND   ROOTSTOCKS 

Cultivated  varieties  of  fruit  trees  rarely  come  true  to  type  when 
propagated  from  seed.  As  a  consequence  seeds  are  used  only  to 
produce  nursery  seedlings  upon  which  the  desired  varieties  are  budded 
or  grafted.  To  produce  nursery  stock  successfully  requires  much 
time  and  patience  besides  a  certain  amount  of  skill  obtained  only  by 
experience.  Apple  growers  therefore  usually  purchase  their  nursery 
trees  from  a  nurseryman.  There  are  instances,  however,  where  indi- 
vidual growers  wish  to  produce  their  own  trees.  Additional  trees  are 
often  desired  of  some  particular  variation,  some  unknown  variety,  or 
some  general  favorite  no  longer  commercially  propagated.  In  such 
cases  a  knowledge  of  the  general  principles  of  budding  and  grafting,3 
together  with  a  small  amount  of  practice,  should  enable  one  to  be  at 
least  fairly  successful. 

In  collecting  seedlings  for  the  propagation  of  the  apple  on  a  small 
scale,  little  if  any  attention  need  be  given  to  the  varieties  from  which 
they  came,  as  the  seeds  are  usually  collected  from  cider  mills  and 
hence  have  come  from  a  number  of  varieties.  Most  nurserymen  have 
been  of  the  belief  that  the  seed  secured  from  the  wild  seedlings  of 
France,  known  as  "French  Crab,"  and  those  from  Vermont,  known 
as  "Vermont  Crab,"  produced  a  stronger  tree  and  were  better 
adapted  as  rootstocks  than  seedlings  of  cultivated  varieties.  However, 
owing  to  difficulty  in  securing  such  stock  in  sufficient  quantities, 
seedlings  from  a  large  number  of  commercial  varieties  have  been  tried 
with  good  success.  Notable  among  these  are  the  Northern  Spy  and 
Delicious,  both  of  which  are  generally  regarded  as  highly  immune  to 
woolly  aphis. 

Unlike  the  majority  of  other  deciduous  fruits  which  may  be  grown 
upon  the  rootstock  of  an  entirely  different  fruit,  the  apple  is  limited 


2  For  detailed  descriptions  and  illustrations  of  crab  apple  varieties  see :  Beach, 
S.  A.,  Apples  of  New  York.  State  Dept.  Agr.,  Albany,  N.  Y.  Descriptions  also 
in,  Wickson,  E.  J.,  California  fruits.    Pacific  Eural  Press,  San  Francisco,  Calif. 

3  Fully  described  and  illustrated  in,  Stahl,  J.  L.,  Propagation  of  deciduous 
fruits.     California  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Circ.  294:1-24.     1925. 


BuL.  425]  APPLE   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA  19 

to  the  apple  root.  Unions  have  been  made  with  its  near  relative,  the 
pear,  but  these  are  not  successful.  Dwarf  apple  trees,  however,  may 
be  easily  produced  by  using  the  Doucin  or  Paradise  apple  as  a  root- 
stock.  The  former  produces  a  partially  dwarf  tree  while  the  latter 
gives  a  complete  dwarf. 


SELECTION  AND  PURCHASE  OF  NURSERY  STOCK 

In  order  to  secure  the  desired  varieties,  it  is  suggested  that  the 
nursery  order  be  made  out  well  in  advance  of  the  time  desired  for 
planting. 

California  has  a  large  number  of  nurserymen  and  good  stock  can 
usually  be  secured  from  any  reliable  firm.  A  first-class  nursery  tree 
should  be  well  grown,  of  the  age  ordered,  and  with  the  wood  well 
matured.  The  main  stem  of  the  tree  should  be  reasonably  stocky,  the 
bark  clean  and  smooth,  and  the  top  well  supplied  with  good  buds  or 
well  spaced  branches.  It  should  also  possess  a  good  union  where  the 
bud  or  the  scion  was  inserted  into  the  stock.  If  this  union  has  not 
properly  grown  together,  various  fungous  troubles  are  likely  to  enter 
at  this  point  and  shorten  the  life  of  the  tree,  or  it  may  break  off 
several  years  after  being  planted  in  the  orchard. 

At  the  present  time  the  trees  which  are  in  greatest  demand  for 
planting  are  those  which  have  grown  only  one  year  in  the  nursery. 
Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  two-year-old  tree  receives  greater  injury 
to  its  roots  when  being  transplanted,  it  is  doubtful  if  it  comes  into 
bearing  any  earlier  than  the  one-year-old  tree.  The  latter  also  usually 
possesses  a  sufficient  number  of  good  buds  on  the  stem  to  form 
scaffold  branches  where  desired. 

Formerly  nursery  trees  were  graded  only  according  to  height  but 
at  present  the  leading  nurserymen  also  consider  the  diameter  of  the 
main  stem  and  usually  grade  or  classify  one-year-old  trees  into  the 
following  groups: 

4-6  feet  high — y2  inch  or  over  in  diameter. 
3-4  feet  high--%  to  %  inch  in  diameter. 
2-3  feet  high — %  to  %  inch  in  diameter. 

The  price  of  the  trees  naturally  varies  with  the  size  and  grade.  It 
is  doubtful  if  the  smallest  sizes  should  be  purchased  when  it  is  possible 
to  secure  those  which  have  made  a  better  growth. 

Upon  receipt  of  the  trees  they  should  be  removed  from  the  original 
package  and  unless  planted  immediately,  heeled-in  at  some  convenient 


20  UNIVERSITY   OF   CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT   STATION 

place,  preferably  where  they  will  not  be  exposed  to  the  afternoon  sun. 
Where  trees  were  ordered  from  a  distance  and  arrive  in  a  dry  con- 
dition, the  roots  may  be  soaked  in  water  for  several  hours  before 
heeling-in.  Where  the  branches  also  appear  dry,  the  entire  tree  may 
be  put  in  the  soil  and  covered  for  a  period  of  several  days. 


ESTABLISHING  THE  ORCHARD 

PRELIMINARY  PLANNING 

The  profitableness  of  an  apple  orchard  will  depend  to  a  great 
extent  upon  careful  planning,  or  the  ability  of  the  orchardist  to 
visualize  his  future  orchard,  ten  or  twenty  years  after  planting. 
Mistakes  which  are  difficult  or  impossible  to  correct  after  the  trees 
are  planted  can  often  be  foreseen  by  carefully  laying  out  the  proposed 
orchard  on  paper,  spacing  the  trees  according  to  scale  at  the  distances 
decided  upon,  locating  roadways  and  possible  irrigation  ditches. 
Such  a  map  enables  one  to  see  how  many  trees  are  needed  of  a  given 
variety,  and  how  they  may  be  spaced  to  the  best  advantage.  If 
properly  labeled  and  preserved  it  may  also  serve  as  a  ready  reference 
as  to  the  location  of  any  given  tree  in  the  orchard. 

Of  the  different  systems  of  planting  the  square  is  the  most  popular 
and  convenient,  except  perhaps  on  very  rolling  land,  where  contour 
planting  is  recommended.  The  quincunx  system — in  reality  the  square 
method  with  a  tree  in  the  center  of  each  square — is  adopted  where  the 
orchard  is  interplanted  with  temporary  or  filler  trees. 

Peaches  are  sometimes  used  as  filler  trees  in  apple  orchards  to 
enable  the  grower  to  realize  some  revenue  from  the  orchard  before 
the  permanent  trees  begin  to  bear.  However,  it  is  believed  that  the 
majority  of  orchardists  realize  that  such  a  plan  often  results  in 
the  temporary  trees  remaining  too  long  and  causing  injury  to  the 
permanent  trees.  Where  irrigation  facilities  are  available  or  there 
are  summer  rains,  intercropping  with  small  fruits  or  vegetables  is 
considered  more  desirable. 

Planting  the  trees  too  close  together  has  been  a  general  mistake 
in  most  of  the  early  orchards,  many  trees  having  been  set  from  20 
to  24  feet  apart.  These  are  now  crowding  badly,  severe  pruning  is 
necessary,  and  the  fruit  is  difficult  to  harvest. 

The  distance  of  planting  apple  trees  varies  somewhat  with  the 
variety  and  soil  conditions.  The  larger  and  more  spreading  varieties 
such  as  Gravenstein,  Jonathan,  and  Winesap,  should  be  planted  at 


BuL.425]  APPLE   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA  21 

somewhat  greater  distances  than  the  upright  growing  sorts,  such  as 
the  Red  June  and  Rome  Beauty.  Deep  loam  or  clay  loam  soils  will 
produce  larger  trees  than  those  planted  on  the  lighter  soils.  The 
planting  distance  may  also  vary  to  some  extent  with  the  severity  of 
pruning.  Usual  planting  distances  recommended  for  the  apple  on  good 
fertile  soils  are  from  30  to  35  feet.4 


PREPAKATION  OF  LAND 

Proper  preparation  of  the  land  previous  to  planting  is  of  great 
importance  in  giving  the  trees  a  satisfactory  start,  and  their  growth 
the  first  season  often  determines  their  future  productivity  and 
profitableness. 

Aside  from  proper  plowing  and  putting  the  soil  in  the  best 
physical  condition  to  receive  the  trees,  it  may  be  necessary  to  first 
clear  the  land,  level  it  for  irrigation  purposes,  and  give  attention  to 
the  question  of  fertility. 

The  orchards  in  the  larger  apple  sections  of  the  state  are  on  land 
which  has  been  cleared  and  cultivated  for  a  good  many  years,  yet 
some  of  the  newer  plantings  are  on  virgin  soil.  Much  of  this  land  is 
more  or  less  heavily  timbered  and  considerable  work  is  necessary  to 
prepare  it  for  planting.  In  some  instances,  the  method  followed  is 
only  to  cut  and  remove  the  timber,  dig  the  holes  and  plant  the  trees 
among  the  stumps.  Some  of  these  trees,  owing  to  the  very  fertile  soil, 
have  made  good  growth,  but  subsequent  plowing  and  cultivation  is 
difficult  and  unless  the  stumps  are  of  a  wood  which  decays  rapidly 
so  as  to  be  entirely  out  of  the  way  after  two  or  three  seasons  it  will 
eventually  prove  most  economical  to  dispose  of  them  at  once.  Oak 
and  redwood  stumps  are  very  slow  to  decay. 

While  the  majority  of  apple  orchards  in  California  are  entirely 
dependent  upon  natural  rainfall  for  their  moisture  supply,  it  is 
believed  many  of  these  would  be  materially  benefited  had  the  land 
been  graded  and  irrigation  facilities  provided.  Leveling  for  orchards 
consists  mostly  in  cutting  off  the  high  points  and  depositing  the  soil 
in  low  places.  The  grade  of  the  land  as  a  whole  is  usually  changed 
very  little,  if  any  at  all.  Different  systems  of  irrigation  can  be  used 
to  advantage  on  the  tracts  having  different  slopes. 

Deep  plowing  and  thorough  preparation  of  the  soil  facilitates 
planting  and  furnishes  the  most  favorable  conditions  for  rapid  root 


*  For  a  fuller  discussion  of  planting  distances  and  methods  of  thinning  see: 
Allen,  F.  W.,  Planting  and  thinning  distances  for  deciduous  fruit  trees.  California 
Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  414:1-29.    1926. 


22  UNIVERSITY   OF    CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT   STATION 

development.  Where  the  land  formerly  has  been  devoted  to  grain 
crops  it  is  especially  desirable  to  plow  a  depth  several  inches  deeper 
than  previously  practiced  in  order  to  break  up  any  "plow  sole" 
which  is  likely  to  exist.  In  some  instances  subsoiling  in  the  tree  rows 
may  be  desirable.  This  should  always  be  done  in  the  fall  previous 
to  planting.  Except  on  steep  slopes,  where  washing  is  likely  to  occur, 
the  land  may  also  be  plowed  in  the  fall.  Fall  plowed  land,  left  rough, 
will  absorb  the  maximum  amount  of  moisture  during  the  winter  and 
may  be  planted  earlier  in  the  spring.  Thorough  discing  and  harrow- 
ing is  usually  sufficient  to  put  the  soil  in  good  friable  condition. 

New  land  is  usually  well  supplied  with  organic  matter  but  that 
which  has  been  long  cultivated  or  for  many  years  devoted  to  grain 
crops  is  likely  to  be  deficient  in  this  respect.  With  such  soils  it  is 
suggested  that  they  receive,  the  fall  previous  to  planting,  an  appli- 
cation of  barnyard  manure,  15  to  20  tons  to  the  acre,  or  that  the  land 
be  sown  to  some  green  manure  crop  which  can  be  turned  under  the 
following  spring.  The  latter  practice  is  becoming  more  important  as 
animal  manures  are  becoming  more  scarce  and  difficult  to  secure. 


LAYING  OUT  THE  ORCHARD 

Properly  laying  out  of  an  orchard  requires  considerable  care.  A 
mistake  made  at  this  time  in  locating  even  one  or  two  trees,  those  from 
which  subsequent  measurements  are  made,  may  cause  a  great  many 
others  to  be  out  of  alignment.  Straight  rows  are  not  only  a  source  of 
pride,  but  are  quite  desirable  from  the  standpoint  of  orchard  culti- 
vation. The  progressive  orchardist  should,  therefore,  thoroughly 
understand  the  simpler  and  more  satisfactory  methods  of  staking  out 
the  trees  before  attempting  the  actual  field  work.5 


PLANTING 

Setting  the  tree  at  the  proper  depth  and  compacting  the  soil  well 
around  the  roots  are  important  considerations  in  planting.  Nursery 
trees  usually  form  their  roots  at  a  depth  most  congenial  for  their 
development  and  in  setting  the  trees  in  the  orchard  they  should  be 
planted  at  approximately  the  same  depth  as  they  stood  in  the  nursery. 
This  depth  can  generally  be  determined  without  difficulty  from  the 
appearance  of  the  tree  trunk. 


s  Wickson,  E.  J.,  California  fruits.     10th  ed.,  pp.  85-92.     Pacific  Rural  Press, 
San  Francisco.     1926. 


Bul.  425]  APPLE   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA  23 

In  order  to  avoid  air  pockets,  well  pulverized  soil  should  be  placed 
next  to  the  tree  roots  and  tramped  thoroughly  as  it  is  thrown  in.  All 
injured  roots  had  best  be  removed  before  setting.  In  order  to  facilitate 
planting,  the  remainder  may  be  shortened  back  to  six  or  eight  inches. 
Cutting  back  is  considered  preferable  to  bending  out  of  their  natural 
position.  Small,  fibrous  roots,  usually  dead  before  the  tree  is  set,  may 
likewise  be  removed  as  these  make  it  more  difficult  to  place  the  soil 
in  firm  contact  with  the  larger  roots. 

As  it  requires  some  time  for  the  newly  transplanted  tree  to  become 
established  and  as  it  is  desirable  that  new  root  growth  precede  that 
of  the  branches,  trees  may  profitably  be  planted  as  early  in  the  season 
as  mature  nursery  stock  can  be  secured  and  the  soil  can  be  put  in 
good  condition.  Where  conditions  are  favorable  for  planting  in  late 
November  and  in  December,  trees  set  at  this  time  should  have  con- 
siderable advantage  over  those  not  planted  until  March  or  April. 
However,  at  some  of  the  higher  altitudes  it  often  may  be  necessary 
to  delay  planting  until  relatively  late.  Under  such  circumstances  an 
effort  should  be  made  to  hold  the  trees  as  nearly  dormant  as  possible 
in  order  that  the  buds  may  not  push  and  utilize  all  of  the  stored  food 
previous  to  the  growth  of  the  roots. 

As  a  large  portion  of  the  feeding  roots  are  cut  in  digging  from 
the  nursery,  the  top  of  the  tree  should  be  reduced  to  a  corresponding 
degree.  At  the  time  of  planting,  therefore,  the  main  stem  is  usually 
cut  back  to  a  height  desired  for  the  scaffold  branches.  Immediately 
after  planting  it  is  recommended  that  the  trees  be  protected  from  sun- 
burn, and  incidentally  from  borers,  by  coating  the  entire  stem  with 
whitewash. 

CULTURE 

OECHAED  CULTIVATION 

Young  trees  should  be  encouraged  to  make  rapid  growth  and  for 
this  reason,  if  for  no  other,  should  receive  good  cultivation.  In 
young  orchards  plowing  is  usually  recommended  once  each  season. 
In  older  orchards  discing  or  chiseling  is  being  substituted  to  some 
extent  for  plowing. 

The  exact  time  of  plowing  will  depend  primarily  upon  the  con- 
dition of  the  soil,  the  amount  and  season  of  rainfall,  and  the  growth 
of  weeds,  or  cover  crop  on  the  land.  Many  soils  must  be  worked  at 
just  the  right  time,  as  plowing  either  too  wet  or  too  dry  results  in  a 
hard  lumpy  soil  often  for  the  remainder  of  the  season.     In  young 


24  UNIVERSITY   OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT   STATION 

orchards,  the  plow  may  be  run  reasonably  close  to  the  trees  without 
injury.  Rather  deep  plowing  the  first  two  or  three  years  will  also 
encourage  deeper  rooting.  With  the  older  trees,  however,  where  pre- 
vious plowing  has  been  shallow,  some  damage  may  be  done  to  the 
roots  by  close  or  deep  plowing.  In  order  to  prevent  a  series  of 
permanent  furrows  and  ridges  between  the  tree  rows,  the  direction  of 
turning  the  furrows  should  be  reversed  each  year.  After  spring 
plowing,  the  soil,  while  the  surface  is  still  moist,  should  be  pulverized 
with  a  disc,  spike-tooth  harrow,  or  both.  Spring-tooth  harrows  are 
also  used,  being  especially  satisfactory  in  gravelly  soils  (fig.  3). 


Fig.  3. — In  light  soils  the  spring  tooth  harrow  is  an  excellent  orchard  tool. 

With  the  soil  put  in  good  tilth  at  the  beginning  of  each  growing 
season  the  frequency  of  subsequent  cultivations  will  depend  primarily 
upon  weed  growth  and  the  frequency  of  irrigations.  It  seems  to  have 
been  shown  that  cultivation  for  the  conservation  of  moisture  by 
evaporation  is  unnecessary  so  long  as  the  soil  is  kept  free  from  weeds 
or  other  vegetable  growth.6  Frequent  and  continuous  cultivation, 
therefore,  after  the  weeds  are  killed,  or  the  crust  or  cracks  broken  up, 
is  both  expensive  and  useless. 

While  the  majority  of  bearing  orchards  are  maintained  under  a 
system  of  clean  culture  or  of  cultivation  and  cover  crops,  there  are 
some,  primarily  in  the  foothill  and  mountain  sections,  which  receive 


6  Veihmeyer,    F.    J.,    Some    factors   affecting   the   irrigation    requirements    of 
deciduous  orchard.     California  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Hilgardia  2:125-290.     1927. 


BuL.  425]  APPLE   GROWING   IN   CALIFORNIA  25 

little  cultivation.  Weeds  and  grass  are  allowed  to  grow  throughout 
the  summer  months,  this  vegetation  being  turned  under  the  following 
spring.  While  this  system  of  soil  management  gives  the  orchard  a 
neglected  appearance,  it  may  be  justifiable  where  irrigation  water  is 
plentiful  and  cheap. 

Such  a  system  of  management  is  advantageous  in  that  it  reduces 
an  important  item  of  orchard  cost,  it  increases  the  organic  matter 
and  moisture  holding  capacity  of  the  soil,  and  practically  eliminates 
washing  of  steep  slopes. 


FEETILIZATION 

Although  many  orchards  have  been  grown  with  little  thought  given 
to  soil  fertility,  its  importance  as  related  to  tree  growth  and  yields  is 
now  generally  receiving  greater  attention.  While  in  some  instances 
apple  orchards  are  on  new  land  which  may  contain  a  relatively  high 
nitrogen  content  and  be  well  supplied  in  mineral  elements,  the 
majority  of  trees  in  the  larger  producing  sections  are  on  land  which 
for  reasons  previously  mentioned  are  likely  to  be  low  in  available 
nitrogen  and  organic  matter. 

Animal  Manures. — Organic  matter  is  derived  from  animal  manures 
and  from  the  decay  of  plants.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  manures  add 
nitrogen  and  at  the  same  time  improve  the  physical  condition  of  the 
soil  they  have  long  been  recommended.  At  the  present  time,  however, 
their  scarcity  limits  their  use  to  a  comparatively  few  who  are  situated 
near  large  sources  of  supply.  When  the  cost  is  not  prohibitive,  appli- 
cations of  ordinary  barnyard  manure  may  be  made  at  the  rate  of  six 
to  ten  tons  to  the  acre.  Poultry  manure,  largely  used  by  Sebastopol 
growers,  is  high  in  nitrogen  content  and  only  from  two  to  three  tons 
is  used  to  the  acre.  Applications  are  generally  made  during  the 
dormant  season.  In  fertilizing  mature  trees,  it  is  advisable  to  scatter 
the  manure  well  in  between  the  rows  rather  than  immediately  adjacent 
to  the  tree  trunk. 

Cover  Crops. — With  the  scarcity  of  animal  manures  the  growing 
of  some  green  crop  to  plow  under,  offers  the  most  feasible  means  of 
building  up  the  organic  matter  of  the  soil.  Cover  crops  not  only  add 
this  organic  matter  but  the  legume  crops  also  add  nitrogen.7 

Owing  to  the  necessity  for  an  adequate  supply  of  water  through- 
out the  summer  months,  cover  crops  in  California  have  been  confined 

7  Kennedy,  P.  B.,  Leguminous  plants  as  organic  fertilizers  in  California  agri- 
culture.    California  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Circ.  255:1-8.     1922. 


26  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT   STATION 

largely  to  those  grown  during  the  fall  and  winter  months.  Where  the 
legume  crops  fail  to  make  a  satisfactory  growth  during  this  period 
grains  may  be  sown  with  the  legumes,  or  if  the  former  make  no  growth 
the  cereals  may  be  grown  alone.  As  a  rule  the  earlier  in  the  fall  a 
cover  crop  is  sown,  the  greater  will  be  its  benefits. 

Among  the  leading  legume  crops  grown  in  California  are  the 
common  vetch  (Vicia  sativa),  purple  vetch  (Vicia  at  ro  purpurea) , 
bitter  clover  (Melilotus  indica),  Canada  field  peas  (Pisum  arvense), 
bur  clover  (Medicago  hispida),  and  horse  bean  (Vicia  faba).  As 
cover  crops  in  apple  orchards,  the  vetches  and  clovers  are  as  a  rule 
the  most  widely  grown.  Vetch  is  recommended  in  the  coast  counties 
and  south  of  the  Tehachapi.  Bur  clover  does  well  in  most  parts  of 
the  state,  usually  reseeding  itself  year  after  year  if  soil  fertility  is 
maintained.  As  a  rule,  however,  it  fails  to  produce  as  heavy  a  growth 
as  the  vetches  or  bitter  clover. 

Where  one  has  unlimited  irrigation  facilities  and  a  soil  sufficiently 
rich  in  available  nitrogen  to  grow  two  crops  simultaneously,  summer 
crops  such  as  cowpeas,  soybeans,  sweet  clover  and  its  variety,  Hubam 
clover,  are  sometimes  grown.  Red  clover  also  seems  adapted  to  the 
foothills  of  the  Sacramento  Valley  and  may  become  of  considerable 
importance  in  the  northwestern  coast  counties.  Alfalfa  is  a  permanent 
crop  now  almost  universally  used  in  the  irrigated  apple  sections  of 
Washington  and  Oregon  and  is  grown  to  a  limited  extent  in  this  state. 

In  order  that  a  good  growth  can  be  obtained  before  the  end  of 
the  growing  season,  cover  crops  may  be  sown  in  irrigated  sections  in 
August.  In  non-irrigated  sections,  little  if  any  advantage  is  gained 
by  seeding  the  crop  previous  to  the  beginning  of  the  fall  rains. 
Drilling  in  the  seed  is  to  be  preferred  to  broadcasting,  as  the  depth 
of  the  planting  can  be  regulated  and  a  more  even  stand  secured. 
Although  they  may  vary  slightly  in  different  sections,  the  following 
rates  of  seeding  are  recommended  :  Field  peas,  per  acre,  60-80  pounds ; 
vetch  and  horse  beans,  40-50  pounds;  Melilotus,  25  pounds,  or  if 
scarified,  15  pounds;  bur  clover  and  cereals  (where  planted  wTith 
legumes),  20  pounds.     Cereals  planted  alone,  50-60  pounds. 

Unless  the  nodule  bacteria  are  already  present  in  the  soil,  inocu- 
lation may  be  necessary  for  the  successful  growth  of  legumes.  An 
adequate  amount  of  lime  is  also  considered  essential  to  the  best  growth 
of  legume  crops.  In  the  Sebastopol  section  the  application  of  poultry 
manure  seems  to  be  advantageous  in  securing  a  good  growth  of  bur 
clover. 


Bul.  425]  APPLE   GROWING   IN    CALIFORNIA  27 

Turning  under  the  cover  crop  should  be  delayed  as  long  as  possible 
and  yet  maintain  good  soil  moisture.  Where  irrigation  is  not  avail- 
able the  land  should  be  plowed  early  and  worked  down  in  good 
condition.  This  will  often  permit  of  little  spring  growth  of  the  cover 
crop,  but  delay  in  this  case  of  even  ten  days  or  two  weks  may  result  in 
a  very  appreciable  loss  of  soil  moisture. 

With  a  supply  of  irrigation  water,  the  crop  can  both  be  started 
earlier  in  the  fall  and  allowed  to  grow  later  in  the  spring.  The 
greater  the  growth  made  by  the  crop  and  the  more  nearly  it  can  be 
allowed  to  approach  maturity  the  greater  will  be  the  amount  of 
organic  matter  derived  from  it.  Cover  crops  should  produce  from 
ten  to  thirty  tons  of  green  material  per  acre.  Legume  crops  may 
contain  from  ten  to  thirteen  pounds  of  nitrogen  per  ton  of  material. 
Little  if  any  beneficial  effects  are  usually  evident  from  the  use  of 
either  manures  or  cover  crops  until  the  second  season. 

Commercial  Fertilizers. — Commercial  fertilizers  at  present  have  a 
very  limited  use  in  apple  orchards  and  they  are  suggested  only  where 
trees  are  not  making  satisfactory  growth  and  either  animal  or  green 
manures  cannot  be  used.  The  nitrogenous  fertilizers  such  as  nitrate 
of  sodia  and  ammonium  sulphate  have  given  best  results.  Being 
readily  soluble  and  quick  in  their  action  they  should  be  applied  only 
early  in  the  spring.  It  is  best  to  scatter  the  material  over  the  surface 
of  the  soil,  under  the  branches  of  the  tree,  and  work  it  in  just  previous 
to  the  opening  of  the  blossoms.  The  usual  rate  of  application  is  from 
one  to  three  pounds  for  trees  one  to  eight  years  of  age  and  from  four 
to  six  pounds  for  bearing  trees.  Any  results  obtained  from  these 
fertilizers  should  be  evident  during  the  season  immediately  following 
their  application. 

INTERCROPPING 

From  five  to  eight  years  must  elapse  after  planting  an  orchard 
before  a  commercial  crop  can  be  expected.  During  this  unproductive 
period  it  is  necessary  for  most  growers  to  secure  some  returns  from 
the  land.  Intercropping  is  a  possible  source  of  income.  This  practice, 
however,  after  the  first  two  or  three  seasons  becomes  in  reality  double 
cropping,  in  that  soil  fertility  and  moisture  removed  by  the  inter- 
.crop  is,  in  some  instances,  needed  for  the  best  growth  of  the  trees. 
The  fact  should  not  be  lost  sight  of  that  the  trees  are  the  main  crop 
and  if  they  have  to  compete  with  some  other  crop  for  moisture  and 
plant  food  elements,  they  cannot  make  their  most  rapid  or  satisfactory 


28  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 

development.  As  a  rule,  therefore,  intercrops  are  most  successful  on 
soils  of  good  fertility  and  on  land  under  irrigation.  During  the  first 
year  after  setting  the  orchard,  crops  should  not  be  planted  closer  to 
the  tree  rows  than  six  feet  and  this  distance  should  be  increased 
slightly  each  year  until  the  intercrop  is  discontinued. 

Cultivated  crops  are  recommended  for  young  orchards  and  annual 
crops  are  considered  somewhat  more  desirable  than  perennial  crops. 
Among  the  most  desirable  crops,  where  a  market  is  established,  are 
beans,  squash,  melons,  cabbage,  turnips,  mangels,  potatoes,  spinach, 
beets,  peas,  tomatoes,  and  rhubarb.  Strawberries  and  the  bush  fruits 
rank  second  and  in  some  instances  have  been  extensively  grown. 
Nursery  stock,  corn  and  other  grains  compete  with  the  trees  to  a 
greater  extent  than  other  crops  and  their  growth  is  to  be  discouraged. 


IRRIGATION 

Where  bearing  trees  will  produce  eight  to  ten  inches  of  new  wood 
growth  each  year  and  a  satisfactory  annual  crop  of  good-sized  fruit, 
irrigation  would  seem  unnecessary.  If,  however,  wood  growth  is 
scanty,  the  fruit  even  when  properly  thinned,  fails  to  size  properly 
and  is  of  poor  quality,  lacking  in  crispness  and  flavor,  irrigation  should 
be  considered.  It  is  believed  that  the  future  success  of  many  orchards 
will  depend  to  a  great  degree  upon  whether  the  owner  can  supply 
water  during  the  growing  season. 

The  advantages  and  some  of  the  factors  influencing  the  need  of 
irrigation  have  already  been  mentioned  under  the  general  require- 
ments of  the  apple.  A  supply  of  available  moisture  throughout  the 
growing  season  is  the  condition  desired  and  frequent  examination 
of  the  soil  with  a  soil  auger  is  the  most  satisfactory  method  of 
determining  the  necessity  for,  and  the  frequency  of  supplying  water. 

Sufficient  amounts  of  water  should  be  applied  to  secure  thrifty, 
but  not  excessive  or  rank  wood  growth.  Soils  which  are  light  and 
sandy  in  nature  or  those  underlaid  with  a  substratum  of  gravel  may 
require  frequent  applications  of  water,  while  on  the  heavier  clay 
loams  the  trees  may  do  well  with  but  one  or  two  waterings.  In  the 
Yucaipa  district,  water  is  applied  every  fourteen  days  during  the 
summer  to  the  trees  on  the  lighter  soils  and  every  twenty-eight  days 
to  those  on  the  heavier  soils.  From  four  to  eight  applications  are 
given  each  year,  allowing  the  water  to  run  from  twelve  to  seventy-two 
hours.  In  other  sections  of  San  Bernardino  County  where  the  soil  is 
extremely  sandy,  water  is  applied  every  week  after  June  15.     One  to 


Bul.  425] 


APPLE    GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA 


29 


two  irrigations  in  July  and  August  are  considered  sufficient  in  the 
Paradise  section,  whereas  the  Watsonville  and  Sebastopol  sections 
depend  entirely  upon  local  rainfall. 

Where  cover  crops  are  grown  it  is  generally  desirable,  in  the 
absence  of  rain  after  plowing  them  under,  to  give  the  first  irrigation 
soon  after  this  plowing.  This  will  aid  in  the  decay  of  the  cover  crop 
and  prevent  the  surface  soil  from  becoming  dried  out  to  the  depth 


-Furrow  methods  of  irrigation  on  light  soils  in 
San  Bernardino  County. 


at  which  it  was  turned.  With  apples,  the  next  year's  fruit  buds  are 
being  formed  and  the  current  season's  crop  maturing  during  the  same 
months,  primarily  July  to  September.  This  period  is  therefore  a 
critical  time  for  the  tree. 

The  most  common  method  of  applying  water  to  apple  orchards  is 
the  furrow  system,  where  six  to  eight  large  furrows  six  inches  or  more 
in  depth  are  made  between  each  two  rows  of  trees.  The  basin  system 
of  flooding  may  also  be  used  on  comparatively  level  land,  while  the 
contour  system  is  best  adapted  to  foothill  and  mountain  sections. 
Type  of  soil,  topography  of  the  land,  the  amount  of  water  available 
and  its  cost  will  determine  the  most  satisfactory  means  of  application. 
The  chief  essential,  however,  in  applying  water  is  to  secure  even 
distribution  and  good  penetration. 


30  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 


PRUNING8 

TKAINING  AND  PEUNING  YOUNG  TREES 

Young  trees  are  usually  trained  to  one  of  three  systems,  the  open 
center  or  vase-shaped  tree,  the  central  leader  type,  or  the  modified 
leader  sometimes  called  delayed  open  center  type.  With  the  open 
center  system  of  training,  which  is  the  most  popular  in  California, 
three  to  five  branches  are  chosen  to  form  the  framework  of  the  tree. 
All  of  these  are  so  pruned  as  to  maintain  as  nearly  as  possible  an 
equal  size.  Any  tendency  of  a  branch  to  outgrow  the  others  and 
assume  the  lead  is  suppressed.  The  advantages  attributed  to  this 
system  of  training  are  that  it  forms  an  open,  spreading,  low-headed 
tree,  producing  highly  colored  fruits.  The  principal  objection  or  dis- 
advantage is  that  the  scaffold  branches  have  a  tendency  to  issue  from 
one  point  and  thus  produce  a  tree  structurally  weak  (fig.  6). 

In  developing  a  central  leader  tree,  the  upper  or  topmost  branch 
is  allowed  the  ascendency  and  becomes  the  main  leader.  Large,  strong 
pyramid-shaped  trees  are  obtained.  It  is  difficult,  however,  to  keep 
the  tree  low  headed  and  open,  hence  this  system,  largely  used  in  the 
eastern  states,  is  not  recommended  for  western  sections. 

The  modified  leader  or  delayed  open  center  tree  is,  as  the  name 
would  indicate,  the  result  of  an  intermediate  system  of  training 
between  those  just  mentioned.  The  tree  is  started  the  same  as  the 
central  leader  type,  but  after  several  seasons'  growth  the  leader  is 
cut  back  and  suppressed.  Allowing  the  topmost  branch  to  assume 
the  lead  for  a  period  of  from  two  to  five  years  enables  one  to  obtain 
greater  spacing  of  the  scaffolds  on  the  trunk,  to  secure  strong  crotches 
and  at  the  same  time  keep  the  tree  relatively  close  to  the  ground.  It 
is  believed  that  this  type  of  tree  has  much  in  its  favor  and  that  it 
should  be  grown  to  a  greater  extent. 

Starting  the  Main  Branches. — The  height  of  the  tree  trunk  is 
determined  when  first  headed.  The  main  stem  should  be  left  of 
sufficient  height  that  approximately  six  inches  will  intervene  between 
the  main  scaffolds  and  yet  not  have  the  lowest  branch  too  near  the 
ground.  A  height  of  from  twenty-four  to  thirty  inches  is  recom- 
mended.    Three  main  branches  well  distributed  around  the  trunk  as 


s  For  greater  details  than  are  given  here  see:  Tufts,  W.  P.,  Pruning  young 
deciduous  fruit  trees.  California  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  313:113-153.  1919;  and 
Tufts,  W.  P.,  Pruning  bearing  deciduous  fruit  trees.  California  Agr.  Exp.  Sta. 
Bui.  386:1-47.     1925. 


BuL,  425]  APPLE   GROWING   IN    CALIFORNIA  31 

well  as  up  and  down  are  usually  all  that  is  desired,  although  some 
growers  prefer  to  start  as  many  as  five.  Observations  on  bearing  trees 
show  that  at  five  feet  from  the  ground  five  to  seven  secondary  stems 
are  usually  all  that  the  tree  is  able  to  carry  without  crowding.  Where 
young  trees  are  already  branched  when  planted,  the  side  branches 
suitably  located  may  be  shortened  only,  rather  than  cut  off.  All 
superfluous  branches,  however,  should  be  removed. 


Fig.  5. — Close  view  of  bearing  tree  showing  crowding  of  main  branches. 
Sucker  growth  has  been  cut  back  to  induce  fruiting  wood. 

First  Summer's  Pinching. — By  the  latter  part  of  April  a  number 
of  branches  will  as  a  rule  have  started  from  the  numerous  buds  on 
the  tree  trunk.  As  soon  as  these  young  shoots  are  three  or  four  inches 
in  length,  those  desired  for  the  framework  of  the  tree  should  be  chosen 
and  those  not  needed  for  this  purpose  pinched  back.  Such  pinching, 
if  done  at  this  time,  results  in  more  vigorous  growth  of  the  remaining 
branches,  better  shaped  trees  and  the  necessity  for  less  cutting  at  the 
first  winter  pruning.  The  trees  should  be  gone  over  a  second  time  in 
about  six  weeks  to  suppress  any  new  undesirable  growth  which  may 
have  started  after  the  first  pinching. 

First  Dormant  Pruning. — At  the  first  dormant  pruning,  which  in 
California  may  be  given  any  time  after  leaf  fall  and  the  beginning 


32  UNIVEESITY   OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 

of  activity  in  the  spring,  the  scaffold  branches  should  be  headed  back 
fifteen  to  thirty  inches  or  more  from  the  juncture  with  the  tree  trunk. 
As  the  primary  reason  for  this  heading  is  to  induce  more  branching, 
the  limbs  should  be  cut  at  the  approximate  height  at  which  the 
secondary  branches  are  desired.  If  the  modified  leader  type  of  tree 
is  desired,  head  back  the  uppermost  branch  very  lightly.  Where  the 
variety  naturally  makes  a  spreading  growth,  it  is  well  to  head  the 
branches  somewhat  severely,  cutting  to  an  inside  bud.  Where  the 
growth  is  upright  and  a  greater  spread  of  branches  is  desired  cut  to 
an  outside  bud. 

The  first  dormant  pruning  is  of  great  importance  as  the  tree  is 
being  shaped  as  it  should  grow.  The  severity  of  pruning  will  also 
have  a  marked  effect  upon  the  age  at  which  it  will  come  into  bearing. 

Second  Summer's  Pruning. — From  the  main  scaffold  branches 
chosen  and  headed  back  at  the  first  dormant  pruning,  numerous  shoots 
are  likely  to  start.  Some  of  these,  if  not  suppressed  may  outgrow 
those  desired  for  secondary  branches.  The  tree  may  also  become  so 
filled  with  new  wood  that  severe  thinning  will  be  necessary  the  follow- 
ing winter.  For  these  reasons  it  is  considered  desirable  to  go  over 
the  trees  early  in  the  season  when  the  new  shoots  have  attained  a 
length  of  six  to  ten  inches  and  remove  all  undesirable  growth.  Where 
it  was  possible  to  secure  the  desired  number  of  well-spaced  scaffold 
branches  at  the  last  pruning,  two  shoots  from  each  of  these  are 
sufficient  to  leave.  Where  even  distribution  was  not  obtained  one  or 
more  additional  shoots  well  placed  may  serve  to  fill  a  vacancy  and 
produce  a  better  balanced  tree. 

Second  Dormant  Pruning. — Where  the  trees  are  summer  pruned 
as  outlined  above,  the  second  dormant  pruning  should,  in  most  in- 
stances, consist  only  of  thinning  out  superfluous,  interfering  and  mis- 
placed branches.  A  variety  such  as  Spitzenburg  (fig.  7)  may  necessitate 
heading  of  the  secondary  branches  in  order  to  induce  further  branch- 
ing at  the  desired  height,  but  with  most  varieties  this  is  not  necessary 
and  its  practice  means  additional  pruning  later  on  and  subsequent 
delay  in  the  time  required  for  the  tree  to  reach  commercial  produc- 
tion. Any  extra  long  or  over-vigorous  branch  growing  at  the  expense 
of  the  others  or  causing  the  tree  to  become  unbalanced  should  be 
subdued  by  heading.  Heavy  or  severe  cutting  will  check  the  growth 
of  any  branch,  while  light  pruning  or  none  at  all  will  encourage  most 
rapid  development. 

Third  Summer's  Pruning. — Whether  summer  pruning  should  con- 
tinue after  the  second  summer  will  depend  upon  the  amount  of  new 
wood  produced  and  the  formation  of  fruit  spurs.     Where  growth  is 


Bul,  425] 


APPLE    GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA 


33 


exceedingly  vigorous  and  there  is  no  indication  of  fruiting  spurs  in  the 
lower  portions  of  the  tree,  some  additional  thinning  to  secure  more 
light  may  prove  advantageous. 


JL 

; 

1 

1 

1 

i 

«4 

it 

Fig.  6. — Four-year-old  Eed  Astrachan  tree  after  pruning.     Branches  thinned 
only.    Poor  crotch  in  tree  due  to  too  low  heading  and  poor  training  the  first  year. 


Third  and  Fourth  Dormant  Pruning. — Pruning  during  the  third 
and  fourth  years  is  largely  a  continuation  of  that  given  the  second 
year.  Continue  to  thin  out  unnecessary  and  interfering  branches, 
water-sprout  growth  and  perhaps  some  small  branches  near  the 
ground  which  hinder  cultivation.    Keep  the  center  of  the  tree  open  to 


34 


UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 


sunlight  yet  avoid  pruning  the  limbs  up  "clean"  by  removing  all  of 
the  short  branches  which  naturally  should  develop  into  fruiting  wood. 
With  the  modified  leader  type  of  tree,  the  branch  which  up  to  this 
time  has  been  permitted  to  maintain  the  ascendency,  is  cut  back  to 
a  lateral  and  allowed  to  develop  no  faster  than  the  others. 


Fig.  7. — Five-year-old  Spitzenburg  tree  showing  long,  rangy  growth  of 
branches.    Note  excellent  set  of  fruit  spurs. 


PEUNING  BEAEING  TEEES 

Where  trees  have  been  properly  cared  for  during  their  formative 
period  they  should  possess  good  shape  and  be  mechanically  able  to 
support  heavy  loads  of  fruit.  Although  some  varieties,  such  as  the 
Rome  Beauty,  Jonathan,  and  Wagener,  produce  a  considerable  pro- 
portion of  their  fruit  on  the  tips  of  last  year's  branches  and  it  is  not 
uncommon  for  a  number  of  varieties  on  the  Pacific  coast  to  produce 
fruit  laterally  on  one  year  twigs,  the  great  bulk  of  the  crop  is  pro- 
duced terminally  on  short  branches  or  spurs  originating  from  wood 
two  years  old  or  older.  These  spurs  normally  begin  to  form  after 
three  to  five  years,  or  at  the  time  when  the  young  tree  naturally  shows 
some  tendency  to  slow  up  its  vegetative  growth. 

The  primary  consideration,  therefore,  in  pruning  bearing  trees  is 
to  maintain  a  proper  balance  between  vegetative  growth  and  fruit 


BUL.  425]  APPLE   GROWING   IN    CALIFORNIA  35 

production.  Excessive  growth  such  as  is  made  by'  the  young  tree  is 
usually  produced  at  the  expense  of  fruit  production,  while  over-bear- 
ing is  accompanied  by  less  growth  and  if  continued  is  apt  to  result  in 
a  general  lack  of  vigor.  The  ideal  condition  during  the  years  of 
maturity  is  where  the  trees  make  from  six  to  ten  inches  of  new  growth 
each  year,  thus  increasing  and  maintaining  the  fruiting  area  while  at 
the  same  time  producing  large  but  not  excessive  annual  crops. 

With  most  varieties  which  previously  have  received  regular  prun- 
ing, there  is  little  necessity  for  any  pruning  other  than  a  light  annual 
thinning.  The  center  of  the  tree  should  be  kept  fairly  open.  If  the 
trees  are  attaining  too  great  a  height  they  may  be  lowered  by  cutting 
back  some  of  the  larger  upright  branches  to  strong  laterals.  Light 
crops  of  fruit  and  a  large  amount  of  vegetative  growth  would  indicate 
that  previous  pruning  practices  had  been  too  severe.  Such  trees 
should  receive  very  little  dormant  pruning.  Less  cultivation  or  less 
water  will  also  help  to  correct  this  condition. 

PEUNING  OLD  TREES 

Old  bearing  trees,  producing  heavy  crops  of  small-sized  fruit  or 
those  not  making  six  to  eight  inches  of  new  wood  growth  annually, 
require  somewhat  heavier  pruning  than  younger  trees  in  order  to 
secure  the  desirable  amount  of  new  growth  and  to  maintain  the  vigor 
of  the  fruiting  spurs.  Moderately  heavy  thinning  of  the  smaller 
branches  will  also  reduce  the  amount  of  fruit  thinning  necessary  in 
years  of  heavy  production. 

TREATMENT  OF  PRUNING  WOUNDS 

Whenever  necessary  to  remove  limbs  from  the  tree  which  are  larger 
than  an  inch  and  a  half  or  two  inches  in  diameter,  the  pruning  wounds 
should  be  covered  with  some  protective  covering  in  order  to  prevent 
the  entrance  of  rot  causing  fungi.  Asphaltum  (Grade  D),  Oronite, 
a  similar  preparation  which  requires  no  heating,  or  white  lead  and 
raw  linseed  oil  may  be  used  for  this  purpose.  In  coastal  sections, 
where  the  climate  favors  the  growth  of  these  fungi  it  is  desirable, 
before  putting  on  the  coating  to  disinfect  the  pruning  cuts  with 
corrosive  sublimate,  1  part  to  1000  parts  of  water.  The  chief  dis- 
advantage of  any  wound  covering  thus  far  used  has  been  that  it 
requires  renewing  once  or  more  each  season.  Recently  the  Oregon 
Experiment  Station  has  recommended  Bordeaux  paint,  a  covering 
made  by  mixing  to  the  consistency  of  paint,  raw  linseed  oil  and 


36  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 

Bordeaux  powder.  The  advantages  claimed  for  the  mixture  are  that 
it  is  cheap,  non-injurious  to  the  growing  layer  or  cambium,  possesses 
fungicidal  value,  and  is  permanent  for  at  least  a  period  of  four  years. 
It  would  seem,  therefore,  that  it  might  largely,  if  not  entirely  replace 
the  materials  previously  used. 

THINNING 

While  the  necessity  for  thinning  the  fruit  has  not  been  realized  to 
the  same  extent  as  that  of  pruning  or  spraying,  its  benefits  in  years 
of  heavy  crop  yields  are  quite  apparent  and  in  most  commercial 
orchards  thinning  is  now  an  established  practice.  Removing  the 
surplus  specimens  aids  in  increasing  the  size,  color,  quality,  and 
uniformity  of  the  fruit,  prevents  breaking  of  limbs,  assists  in  main- 
taining the  general  vigor  of  the  trees,  makes  possible  more  effective 
spraying,  and  decreases  the  labor  of  handling  the  crop  at  harvest  time. 

No  definite  dates  can  be  given  for  thinning  since  it  varies  with 
the  variety,  season,  and  general  climatic  conditions.  In  most  instances, 
however,  there  is  a  natural  drop  of  young  fruits  several  weeks  after 
the  blooming  period.  Immediately  following  this,  while  the  apples 
are  still  small  and  before  the  seeds  develop  to  any  extent  is  the  most 
accepted  time  for  removing  the  surplus  fruits.  With  summer  apples, 
however,  such  as  the  Gravenstein,  the  growers  of  Sonoma  County 
delay  thinning  until  the  fruit  becomes  of  sufficient  marketable  size 
for  culinary  uses. 

In  general,  thinning  should  be  practiced  to  the  extent  necessary  to 
produce  at  least  moderate  size  fruit  and  relieve  the  overburdened 
trees.  A  sufficient  number  of  specimens  should  be  removed  so  that 
when  the  fruits  attain  their  full  size  they  shall  be  from  four  to  six 
inches  apart  on  the  branch.  Unless  the  set  of  fruit  is  very  uneven, 
clusters  should  be  thinned  so  that  only  one  apple  remains  in  each. 


DISEASES  OF  APPLES  AND  THEIR   CONTROL.9 

Diseases  of  fruit  trees  are  classified  as  fungous  diseases,  caused  by 
the  growth  of  fungi  and  usually  controlled  by  spraying;  bacterial 
diseases,  the  result  of  bacterial  growth  in  the  tissues  and  controllable 
only  indirectly  by  spraying;  and  physiological  diseases  or  those  pro- 
duced by  some  functional  disorder  which  cannot  always  be  definitely 
determined. 


9  Home,  W.  T.,  E.  O.  Essig,  and  W.  B.  Herms,  Plant  diseases  and  pest  control. 
California  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Cir.  265:1-124.     1925. 


Buu  425]  APPLE   GROWING   IN    CALIFORNIA  37 

Apple  Scab,  Venturia  inequalis  (Cke.)  W int.  -Fusicladium. — 
Scab  is  one  of  the  most  common  and  serious  diseases.  It  is  usually 
much  worse  in  sections  where  high  humidity  and  cool  temperatures 
prevail  during  the  blossoming  period.  However,  the  Watsonville 
district,  where  these  conditions  exist,  is  little  troubled  with  apple  scab. 

Scab  affects  the  blossoms,  fruit,  leaves,  and  occasionally  the  twigs. 
It  reduces  or  may  destroy  the  set  of  fruit,  lessens  its  size  and  keeping 
quality,  and  seriously  affects  its  market  value. 

The  disease  is  most  conspicuous  on  the  fruit,  where  it  first  appears 
as  grayish-green  spots.  The  outer  skin  or  cuticle  breaks  and  exposes 
the  olive  green  spots,  which  soon  become  black.  As  the  spots  enlarge, 
the  central  portion  assumes  more  of  a  russeted  appearance.  Infected 
areas  may  run  together  and  practically  cover  an  entire  side  or  end  of 
the  fruit.  Growth  is  checked  on  these  parts  and  misshapen  fruits 
result. 

Unless  rains  are  frequent  or  fogs  prevail  much  of  the  time  during 
and  immediately  following  the  blossoming  period,  the  disease  may  be 
controlled  by  spraying  with  either  Bordeaux  mixture  4-5-50  (4  lbs. 
copper  sulfate,  5  lbs.  fresh  quick  lime  to  50  gals,  water)  or  lime  sulfur 
1  to  20  (1  gallon  of  concentrated  lime  sulfur  to  20  gallons  of  water) 
as  the  fruit  cluster  buds  are  opening,  followed  by  lime  sulfur,  1-35, 
as  the  petals  are  falling.  Later  applications  of  Bordeaux  may  cause 
russeting  of  the  fruit. 

Mildew,  Sphaerotheca  leucotricha  (E.  &  E.)  Salm.  and  8.  oxya- 
canthae  (De  C.)  De  B. — Mildew  is  another  disease  that  is  most  preva- 
lent in  humid  sections  and  is  of  chief  importance  in  the  Pajaro 
Valley.  A  white  powdery  growth  covers  the  leaves  and  tips  of  young 
shoots,  causing  them  to  stop  their  growth.  The  leaves  may  drop 
prematurely,  and  if  the  disease  is  abundant  and  allowed  to  go 
unchecked  the  tree  may  be  materially  weakened. 

Control  measures  consist  of  pruning  out  the  infected  twigs  in 
winter  and  spraying  in  spring  with  lime  sulfur  as  for  scab.  When 
scab  sprays  are  unnecessary  5-10  pounds  of  wettable  sulfur  may  be 
added  to  each  100  gallons  of  the  codling  moth  spray.  In  bad  cases 
of  infestation  the  first  spraying  should  be  given  in  the  cluster  bud 
stage,  followed  by  additional  applications  at  intervals  of  three  weeks. 

Root  Rot,  Armillaria  mellea  (Vali)  Quel. — Root  rot,  often  spoken 
of  as  oak  root  fungus,  is  found  on  many  of  the  fruits  grown  in  this 
state.  Trees  which  are  attacked  gradually  weaken  and  die,  most 
generally  in  midsummer.  The  presence  of  the  disease  can  be  deter- 
mined by  cutting  into  the  affected  bark  on  the  roots  and  lower  portion 


38  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 

of  the  tree,  where  will  be  found  the  white,  fan-shaped  threads 
(mycelium)  between  the  bark  and  the  wood.  The  fungus  spreads  from 
old  oak  and  other  infected  roots  and  the  only  recommendation  of 
value  is  to  dig  a  trench  three  or  four  feet  deep  around  the  area 
infected.  This  will  cut  the  tree  roots  and  prevent  spreading  to  other 
trees.  Reopening  of  this  trench  will  be  necessary  every  two  or  three 
years.10 

Crown  Gall,  Bacterium  tumefaciens  S.  &  T. — Crown  gall,  also 
known  as  "root  knot"  and  "hairjr  root,"  causes  most  serious  damage 
in  nurseries  but  also  attacks  older  trees,  forming  rounded  fleshy 
tumors  on  the  roots  and  around  the  crown.  It  is  also  occasionally 
seen  on  the  branches.  Early  Harvest,  Wealthy,  Ben  Davis,  Grimes, 
and  Rome  Beauty  are  reported  as  being  more  susceptible  than  most 
other  varieties.  Trees  infected  with  crown  gall,  although  slightly  less 
thrifty  than  others,  may  live  many  years,  but  seldom  produce  full 
crops  of  fruit. 

No  very  satisfactory  control  measures  are  known.  When  the 
disease  is  discovered  before  too  far  advanced,  fairly  satisfactory 
results  may  be  obtained  by  cutting  or  chiseling  out  the  gall,  removing 
all  abnormal  tissue  to  healthy  bark  and  sound  wood  and  disinfecting 
the  wound  with  mercuric  chloride  and  mercuric  cyanide,  1  part  of 
each  to  500  parts  of  water.  Cover  all  wounds  with  Bordeaux  paste 
or  asphaltum.  The  roots  should  be  examined  a  second  time  after  a 
few  weeks  for  the  purpose  of  treating  any  new  galls  which  may  have 
started. 

Blight,  Bacillus  amylovorus  (Burr)  DeT. — Blight,  which  is  the 
most  destructive  disease  of  the  pear,  may  also  attack  the  apple.  The 
disease  attacks  the  wood,  leaves,  flowers  and  sometimes  even  the  fruit. 
The  leaves  or  flowers  blacken  and  quickly  die. 

Inasmuch  as  the  blight  bacteria  work  entirely  within  the  tissues 
of  the  tree,  surgical  methods  the  same  as  recommended  for  pear  blight 
are  the  only  means  of  control. 

Little  Leaf,  Mottled  Leaf,  Rosette. — These  diseases,  the  exact 
cause  of  which  is  unknown,  manifest  themselves  by  a  stunted,  weak 
growth  of  the  twigs  and  foliage.  The  leaves  also  generally  present  a 
yellowish  appearance  rather  than  a  rich,  green  color. 

The  most  promising  methods  of  treatment  are  increasing  the 
organic  matter  of  the  soil,  breaking  up  all  hardpan  or  plow-sole,  and 
sufficient  irrigation  to  insure  the  maintenance  of  a  proper  moisture 
condition  of  the  soil  to  a  depth  of  several  feet.     The  planting  of 

io  Hendrickson,  A.  H.,  Oak  fungus  in  orchard  trees.  California  Agr.  Exp.  Sta. 
Cir.  289:1-13.     1925. 


Bul.  425]  APPLE   GROWING   IN    CALIFORNIA  39 

alfalfa  in  orchards  where  the  trees  show  these  diseases  appears  to  have 
been  very  beneficial.  The  soil  should  also  be  examined  for  alkali  or 
other  injurious  substances. 

Bitter-pit,  Drought-spot,  Cork. — The  spotting  caused  by  these 
diseases  is  noticed  primarily  in  storage,  although  they  have  their 
beginning  earlier.  The  surface  of  the  fruit  shows  sunken  areas  not 
dissimilar  from  dents  or  bruises.  Later  there  is  a  browning  of  the 
pulp  cells  immediately  beneath  such  areas  and  often  throughout  the 
deeper  lying  portions  of  the  pulp.  The  trouble  seems  to  be  influenced 
somewhat  by  the  time  of  picking  the  fruit,  but  perhaps  more  largely 
by  an  uneven  distribution  of  the  water  supply  in  the  soil  and  other 
unfavorable  growing  conditions.  Heavy  irrigation  seems  to  increase 
bitter-pit,  while  drought-spot  and  cork  appear  to  be  the  effect  of 
drought.11 

Jonathan-spot,  Scald,  Internal  Browning.— These  diseases  are 
likewise  primarily  storage  troubles,  although  the  former  may  often 
be  noticed  before  picking  the  fruit.  Jonathan-spot  is  first  seen  as 
circular,  rather  superficial,  brown  or  almost  black,  slightly  depressed 
spots.  This  trouble  is  especially  noticeable  on  the  Jonathan  but  it 
also  occurs  on  many  other  varieties,  particularly  Spitzenburg,  Rome 
Beauty,  and  Grimes.  The  trouble  is  more  severe  on  fruit  of  high 
color.    Earlier  picking  will  reduce  the  severity  of  the  disease. 

Apple  scald  is  a  term  given  to  a  superficial,  rather  extended  brown- 
ing that  involves  the  color-bearing  tissue  of  the  skin,  but  may  in  more 
aggravated  cases  affect  the  deeper  lying  cells  of  the  pulp.  In  extreme 
cases  the  flesh  may  become  soft,  brown  and  rot-like,  and  is  then  known 
as  "deep"  or  "soft  scald"  in  contrast  to  the  more  firm  "hard  scald." 

Recent  investigations  have  shown  that  wrappers  impregnated  with 
various  mineral  oils  materially  reduce  the  disease.12 

Certain  varieties  of  apples,  particularly  the  Yellow  Newtown 
produced  in  the  Pajaro  Valley,  are  subject  to  an  internal  browning 
of  the  flesh  when  placed  in  ordinary  cold  storage  temperatures.  A 
number  of  factors  seem  to  be  associated  with  this  trouble  such  as  cool, 
moist,  growing  conditions,  rich  soil,  and  general  nutritive  conditions 
of  the  tree.  The  trouble  develops  less  in  storage  when  the  fruit  is 
held  at  36°-38°  F  rather  than  at  32°  F.13 


11  Brooks,  Charles,  and  D.  F.  Fisher,  Irrigation  experiments  on  apple-spot 
diseases.     Jour,  of  Agr.  Ees.  12:109-137.     1918. 

12  Brooks,  Charles,  J.  S.  Cooley,  and  D.  F.  Fisher,  Apple  scald  and  its  control. 
U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Farmers'  Bul.  1380:1-16.     1923. 

13  Overholser,  E.  L.,  A.  J.  Winkler,  and  H.  E.  Jacob,  Factors  influencing  the 
development  of  internal  browning  of  the  Yellow  Newtown  apple.  California  Agr. 
Exp.  Sta.  Bul.  370:1-40.     1923. 


40  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT   STATION 


INSECT  PESTS  AND  THEIR   CONTROL 

Insect  pests  have  been  grouped  into  those  having  chewing  mouth 
parts,  usually  though  not  always  combatted  by  poison  sprays,  and 
those  with  sucking  mouth  parts,  combatted  by  contact  sprays. 

Codling  Moth,  Carppcapsa  pomonella  Linn. — The  codling  moth  or 
apple  worm  is  known  in  practically  every  section  where  apples  are 
grown  and  it  is  the  most  destructive  apple  pest.  The  tunnels  through 
the  flesh  and  core  of  the  fruit,  the  pinkish  white  worm  found  inside, 
and  the  borings  about  the  place  of  entrance  are  familiar  to  all  apple 
growers. 

Arsenate  of  lead,  using  2  pounds  of  powder  or  5  pounds  of  paste 
to  each  100  gallons  of  water,  applied  as  the  petals  are  falling,  again 
three  weeks  later,  and  repeated  as  often  as  necessary,  has  been  the 
standard  recommendation  for  codling  moth  control. 

The  fact  that  arsenical  residues  made  it  necessary  to  wipe  much 
of  the  fruit  during  the  season  of  1926  has  led  to  much  discussion  as 
to  a  possible  substitute  for  this  material.  However,  at  the  present 
time  leading  entomologists  consider  arsenate  of  lead  as  the  only  known 
insecticide  which  is  practical  and  effective.  All  other  possibilities  are 
either  ineffective  or  still  in  the  experimental  stage. 

Since  early  spray  applications  are  much  more  effective  in  codling 
moth  control  and  much  less  objectionable  from  the  standpoint  of 
spray  residue  than  the  late  applications,  it  is  recommended  that  special 
emphasis  be  placed  on  the  calyx  and  early  cover  sprays.  If  the  first 
brood  of  the  moth  is  practically  eliminated,  heavy  applications  of 
spray  later  in  the  season  will  be  unnecessary. 

In  addition  to  spraying,  special  attention  should  be  given  to  band- 
ing the  trees  to  trap  larvae ;  scraping  the  bark  of  rough  limbs ;  thin- 
ning the  fruit  to  remove  infested  specimens;  the  destruction  of 
windfalls,  cull  fruit,  and  waste  products;  and  general  orchard  and 
packing  house  sanitation. 

Caterpillars. — Caterpillars,  while  not  often  serious,  appear  in 
colonies  and  often  defoliate  a  large  branch  or  part  of  a  tree  in  a  few 
days'  time.  Colonies  may  be  controlled  by  hand  picking,  spraying  as 
for  codling  moth,  or  dusting  with  powdered  arsenate  of  lead  and 
hydrated  lime  in  equal  parts. 

Tussock  Moths,  Hemerocampa  vetusta  (Boisd.).  —  Occasionally 
troublesome  in  some  of  the  coastal  sections.  Hand  picking  the  white 
egg  masses  during  the  winter  months  has  been  followed  in  the  Pajaro 
Valley. 


BUL.  425]  APPLE   GROWING   IN    CALIFORNIA  41 

Fruit  Tree  Leaf  Roller,  Archips  argyrospila  Walker. — This  insect, 
usually  recognized  as  a  deep  green  caterpillar  about  three-quarters  of 
an  inch  in  length,  starts  feeding  early  in  the  season  in  the  opening 
buds,  upon  the  blossoms,  young  leaves  and  fruit.  As  the  foliage 
grows,  the  caterpillars  draw  the  leaves  together  in  rolls  and  tie  them 
with  a  fine  web,  thus  making  hiding  places.  After  this  characteristic 
rolling  is  noticed  sprays  are  of  little  value.  If  noticed  earlier  spray- 
ing with  basic  arsenate  of  lead  may  give  partial  control.  The  most 
satisfactory  means  of  control,  however,  is  by  the  use  of  an  oil  spray 
during  the  winter  which  kills  the  eggs.  These  are  usually  laid  in 
the  fall,  in  small,  flat  masses,  mostly  near  the  end  of  the  new  wood. 
In  spraying  particular  attention  should  be  given,  therefore,  to 
thoroughly  wet  these  parts. 

Flat-headed  Apple  Tree  Borer,  Chrysobothris  mali  Horn. — Since 
borers  rarely  attack  vigorous,  healthy  trees  the  primary  method  of 
control  is  to  prevent  the  trees  from  becoming  weakened.  Sunburn, 
drought,  winter  injury  and  injury  to  the  roots  all  favor  and  make  the 
tree  susceptible  to  borers.  Whitewashing  is  recommended  to  prevent 
sunburn  and  to  repel  egg  laying.  A  soap-napthaline  repellant  applied 
early  in  spring  and  repeated  every  three  or  four  weeks  is  also  recom- 
mended. Young  trees,  however,  should  be  watched  carefully  through 
the  summer  for  possible  attacks  of  borers  and  these  removed  with  a 
knife  before  they  have  had  time  to  make  extensive  tunnels  in  the  bark 
and  wood. 

Aphis  or  Plant  Lice. — Green  and  rosy  apple  aphis,  Aphis  pomi 
De  Greer,  and  Anuraphis  roseus  Baker,  and  the  woolly  aphis,  Erio- 
soma  lanigera  (Hausm.)  are  the  leading  forms  of  aphis  attacking  the 
apple.  The  first  two  are  easily  distinguished  on  account  of  their 
color,  and  the  latter  easily  recognized  by  the  white  or  bluish-gray 
woolly  coating.  The  leaves  and  shoots  infested  by  aphis  are  frequently 
seen  to  be  covered  with  a  black  substance  as  if  dusted  with  soot.  This 
is  due  to  a  black  fungus  which  grows  on  the  "honeydew"  excreted 
by  the  aphis. 

There  are  many  successive  and  overlapping  broods  of  aphis  each 
year.  Since  aphis  puncture  through  the  plant  tissues  and  feed  upon 
the  juices,  they  are  combated  with  the  contact  sprays.  These  sprays 
must  be  applied  early  and  very  thoroughly,  especially  with  the  woolly 
aphis.  Late  dormant  spraying  with  lime-sulfur  gives  fair  results  in 
killing  the  eggs.  For  the  root  forms  of  the  woolly  aphis,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  first  expose  the  crown  of  the  roots  and  then  wet  those  and  the 
soil  with  several  gallons  of  nicotine  spray.  Refuse  tobacco  stems  may 
also  be  buried  in  the  soil  or  paradichlorobenzene  is  recommended 
during  the  fall. 


42  UNIVERSITY   OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 

San  Jose  Scale,  Aspidiotus  perniciosus  Comst. — San  Jose  scale 
once  an  important  pest  in  this  state  is  now  a  minor  trouble,  except 
in  neglected  orchards.  The  small,  circular,  cone-shaped  gray  scale 
or  covering  of  the  insect  and  the  red  or  purplish  stain  on  the  bark 
and  fruit  is  well  known  to  most  orchardists.  Where  present,  spray 
with  lime-sulfur,  1  to  10,  during  the  winter  months. 


SPRAY    PROGRAM 

Fortunately  apple  growers  in  any  one  section  do  not  regularly  have 
to  combat  all  the  diseases  and  insect  pests  previously  mentioned.  In 
some  sections  certain  of  these  may  be  almost  unknown.  On  the  other 
hand,  one  or  two  of  them  may  be  of  the  greatest  importance  and 
may  require  special  control  measures.  In  localities  of  heavy  fogs  or 
repeated  rains  during  the  spraying  season,  from  two  to  six  sprayings 
may  be  necessary  to  secure  the  results  equivalent  to  those  of  a  single 
spraying  under  favorable  conditions.  Differences  in  climatic  con- 
ditions and  the  relative  importance  of  certain  diseases  and  insect 
pests  will  therefore  cause  some  variation  in  spray  practices.  The 
relative  time  of  applying  the  spray,  however,  and  the  materials  used 
are  rather  uniform  and  hence  apple  growers  generally  will  follow,  in 
part  at  least,  the  following  program. 

In  Late  Winter,  Before  the  Buds  Begin  to  Swell. — Commercial 
lime-sulfur,  1  gallon  and  water  to  make  10  gallons,  may  be  used  to 
control  San  Jose  scale,  to  kill  aphis  eggs,  and  to  remove  moss  and 
lichens.  For  Italian  pear  scale  use  a  crude  oil  emulsion.  Black  scale 
and  brown  apricot  scale,  which  are  seldom  abundant,  may  be  con- 
trolled by  distillate  emulsions  and  miscible  oils. 

In  Spring  as  the  Fruit  Cluster  Buds  Open  and  Before  the  Petals 
of  the  Flowers  Show. — For  apple  scab,  lime-sulfur,  1-20,  or  Bor- 
deaux mixture  4-5-50  (4  pounds  bluestone,  5  pounds  fresh  stone  lime, 
50  gallons  water).  If  cankerworms  or  other  leaf -eating  insects  are 
present,  add  6  pounds  of  basic  arsenate  of  lead  paste  or  3  pounds 
powder  to  each  100  gallons  of  spray  used. 

As  the  Petals  of  the  Flowers  are  Falling. — For  scab,  apple  leaf 
aphis,  and  codling  moth,  spray  with  lime-sulfur  1-35,  one-half  pint 
40%  nicotine  sulfate  and  either  5  pounds  basic  arsenate  of  lead  paste 
or  2  pounds  basic  arsenate  of  lead  powder  to  each  100  gallons  of  spray 
used.  If  mildew  is  present  add  to  the  above,  8  pounds  of  sulfur  paste 
to  100  gallons  of  spray.  In  the  Watsonville  section,  where  it  is  not 
necessary  to  spray  for  scab,  3  pounds  of  powdered  arsenate  of  lead 


BUL.  425]  APPLE   GROWING   IN    CALIFORNIA  43 

to  each  100  gallons  of  water  is  recommended  for  codling  moth.  At 
this  time  when  not  mixed  with  the  lime-sulfur  the  acid  form  of  the 
Jead,  which  is  stronger  and  quicker  acting  than  the  basic  form,  may 
be  used. 

Twenty  to  Thirty  Days  After  the  Petals  Fall. — Repeat  the  pre- 
vious spraying,  substituting  neutral  or  basic  arsenate  of  lead  for  the 
acid  form.  Where  mildew  is  present  use  sulfur  paste  8  pounds  to 
100  gallons  of  water,  but  no  lime-sulfur. 

Last  Week  of  July  or  First  Week  of  August. — If  there  is  a  second 
brood  of  codling  moth  in  July  or  early  August,  indicated  by  a  few 
wormy  apples  (first  brood  of  worms)  early  in  July,  an  additional 
spraying  of  arsenate  of  lead  may  be  necessary.  Use  2  pounds  dry 
arsenate  of  lead  to  each  100  gallons  water.  For  aphis,  spray  with 
40%  nicotine  sulfate,  one-half  pint  and  4  pounds  of  soft  soap  to  each 
100  gallons  of  water  or  other  spray. 

As  spraying  frequently  fails  to  give  the  anticipated  results,  it 
should  be  emphasized  that  not  only  must  the  proper  spray  be  applied 
at  the  right  time,  but  that  thoroughness  in  applying  it  is  necessary. 
For  the  most  efficient  covering,  the  material  should  be  finely  divided 
and  applied  at  pressures  of  from  175  to  225  pounds  when  using  a 
spray  rod  and  250  to  300  pounds  with  spray  guns.  With  bad  infes- 
tations of  aphis  or  where  mildew  is  especially  troublesome,  special 
attention  should  be  given  to  covering  the  underside  of  the  leaves. 
Liberal  applications  of  the  material  should  be  made  early  in  the  season 
in  an  effort  to  avoid  repeated  sprayings  or  heavy  applications  later 
in  the  season.  Late  sprays  with  arsenicals  are  particularly  undesir- 
able on  account  of  the  spraj^  residue  on  the  fruit. 


HANDLING    NEGLECTED   ORCHARDS^ 

In  most  all  apple  growing  sections  of  the  state  there  are  certain 
orchards  which  for  one  reason  or  another  have  been  more  or  less 
neglected.  Perhaps  this  neglect  has  been  due  to  their  unprofitableness 
and  the  land  might  better  be  devoted  to  some  other  crop.  On  the 
other  hand  it  is  believed  there  are  orchards  in  good  producing  dis- 
tricts which,  on  account  of  not  receiving  proper  attention,  might  be 
made  to  produce  more  profitable  returns. 

Pruning  to  remove  dead,  injured  or  broken  branches,  to  thin  out 
some  of  the  surplus  growth  in  the  center  of  the  tree,  and  to  encourage 
the  development  of  new  fruiting  wood  is  usually  one   of  the  first 


14  For  complete  information  on  this  subject  see:  Gould,  H.  P.,  Apple  orchard 
renovation.    Farmers'  Bui.  1284:1-32.    U.  8.  Dept.  Agr.    1922. 


44  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 

operations  needed.  Often  the  trees  have  been  so  neglected  in  this 
respect  that  several  seasons  should  be  taken  to  remove  all  the  surplus 
wood.  Otherwise  excessive  vegetative  growth  may  be  induced,  while 
the  heavy  thinning  may  permit  sunburning  of  the  main  branches. 
Trees  which  have  been  injured  by  sunburn,  the  attacks  of  borers,  or 
rodents  should  receive  the  necessary  attention.  Broken  limbs  should 
be  recut  and  the  pruning  wounds  treated  in  accordance  with  previous 
suggestions. 

Following  pruning,  a  thorough  winter  spraying  should  be  given 
for  moss,  lichens  or  any  disease  or  insect  pest  wintering  on  the  trees. 

Some  of  the  trees  may  be  of  unprofitable  varieties,  and  where  not 
too  old  it  may  pay  to  top-graft  them  over  to  more  desirable  sorts. 
In  other  instances  where  the  trees  are  of  large  size  and  are  badly 
crowding,  the  question  of  removing  a  part  of  the  trees  to  allow  more 
light  and  to  facilitate  cultivation,  spraying  and  harvesting  may 
require  consideration. 

With  first  attention  given  to  the  trees,  second  consideration  should 
be  given  the  soil.  Unless  on  very  steep  land,  good  cultivation  is 
desirable.  Turning  under  all  vegetative  growth,  including  old  leaves 
and  fruit  which  has  been  allowed  to  drop  from  the  trees,  will  not 
only  increase  the  organic  content  of  the  soil,  break  the  hard  soil 
beneath  the  surface,  and  allow  better  penetration  of  water,  but  will 
assist  in  eradicating  rodents  and  in  reducing  insect  and  disease  injury. 
If  the  trees  have  suffered  from  lack  of  sufficient  soil  moisture,  supply 
irrigation  water  wherever  possible.  Soils  lacking  in  fertility  may  be 
built  up  by  methods  already  discussed  in  connection  with  bearing 
orchards. 

HANDLING  THE   CROP 

It  is  highly  advisable  that  the  grower  should  be  well  posted  on  the 
subject  of  picking,  handling,  packing,  and  marketing  of  the  crop. 
Good  methods  in  connection  with  these  practices  are  necessary  if  the 
crop  is  to  reach  its  destination  without  losing  its  attractiveness. 

HAEVESTING 

Time  of  Harvesting. — The  proper  time  for  picking  varies  widely, 
depending  upon  the  season,  the  variety,  the  location  in  which  the 
fruit  is  grown,  and  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  intended.  When  the 
fruit  is  grown  for  home  use  or  for  local  trade,  the  early  varieties 
especially,  may  be  allowed  to  remain  on  the  tree  until  practically 
ripe  enough  to  eat.     Where  fruit  is  to  be  shipped  in  commercial 


Bul.  425]  APPLE   GROWING   IN    CALIFORNIA  45 

quantities  to  distant  markets,  picking  is  usually  in  advance  of  full 
maturity.  With  late  varieties  this  is  of  course  necessary  on  account 
of  climatic  conditions. 

The  exact  time  at  which  a  commercial  crop  should  be  picked  is 
still  very  largely  a  matter  of  individual  judgment,  and  the  grower  is 
between  the  danger  of  picking  too  early,  with  a  loss  of  color  and 
quality  on  the  one  hand  and  that  of  picking  too  late,  with  a  general 
breaking  down  of  the  flesh  and  poor  keeping  quality  on  the  other. 
The  time  elapsing  between  these  two  dates  is  frequently  very  limited, 
and  the  grower  is  often  at  a  loss  to  know  just  when  harvesting  should 
begin. 

No  definite  date  or  single  factor  has  yet  been  found  which  is 
entirely  satisfactory  for  determining  best  maturity  for  picking.  There 
are,  however,  a  number  of  factors  which  taken  together,  form  a  very 
workable  guide.  One  of  these  is  the  ease  with  which  the  apple  can  be 
removed  from  the  fruit  spur.  Most  varieties  when  ready  for  picking, 
can  be  broken  off  from  the  spur  rather  easily.  With  red  apples,  the 
color  of  the  fruit  is  often  taken  as  an  indication  of  their  proper 
maturity.  Color,  however,  may  vary  rather  widely  in  different  dis- 
tricts and  in  different  seasons.  Where  weather  conditions  just  pre- 
vious to  the  time  of  harvesting  are  ideal  for  coloring,  the  fruit  will 
assume  its  natural  color  oftentimes  considerably  in  advance  of  the 
proper  time  for  picking.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  weather  be  cloudy 
or  foggy,  the  fruit  may  be  well  developed  and  yet  show  little  color. 
The  red  or  over-color  is  therefore  not  an  accurate  indication  of  ripe- 
ness; a  much  more  accurate  index  is  the  green  or  yellow  under-color 
of  the  skin.  Whenever  this  color  begins  to  change  from  a  decided 
green  to  a  slight  yellowish  green,  the  fruit  may  generally  be  considered 
in  the  proper  condition  for  harvesting. 

With  green  varieties  loosening  from  the  stem,  the  color  of  the  seed 
and  the  general  flavor  of  the  fruit  are  used  in  determining  proper 
maturity.  Specimens  of  any  variety  should  be  cut  and  the  flesh  tested. 
If  quite  hard  and  starchy  to  the  taste  the  fruit  should,  in  all  proba- 
bility, be  allowed  to  remain  on  the  tree  for  at  least  a  number  of  days. 
It  is  of  course  not  expected  that  any  variety  would  possess  at  this 
time  its  characteristic  aromatic  flavor.  The  flesh  should  be  decidely 
firm  and  of  a  sharp  acid  flavor,  but  there  should  be  practically  no 
starchy  taste. 

Recently,  considerable  data  have  been  secured  in  connection  with 
the  use  of  a  pressure  tester  as  a  measure  of  maturity.15     Fruit  has 


is  Magness,  J.  R.,  and  Geo.  F.  Taylor,  An  improved  type  of  pressure  tester  for 
the  determination  of  fruit  maturity.   U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Dept.  Cir.  350:1-8.    1925. 


46  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 

been  found  to  begin  its  process  of  softening  much  earlier  than  has 
generally  been  recognized  and  by  the  use  of  the  pressure  tester  one 
is  enabled  to  secure  additional  information  on  the  rate  of  ripening 
and  the  probable  time  fruit  may  be  expected  to  keep  in  storage.  While 
its  use  will  never  replace  other  maturity  tests  it  promises  to  be  of 
value  to  use  in  conjunction  with  them.16 

Methods  of  Picking  and  Handling. — There  is  considerable  art  in 
the  method  of  removing  apples  from  the  trees.  Each  specimen  should 
be  grasped  in  the  palm  of  the  hand  and  removed  from  the  fruit  spur 
by  a  quick  upward  twist  of  the  wrist.  A  straight  pull  will  result 
almost  invariably  in  pulling  the  stem  from  the  specimen  and  in  tearing 
the  skin  in  the  cavity.  Any  such  break  in  the  skin  affords  a  source 
of  infection  for  various  molds  and  rots.  Tender  varieties  such  as  the 
Winter  Banana  and  the  Stayman  Winesap  must  be  picked  with  special 
care,  otherwise  they  will  show  the  finger  marks  of  the  picker,  often 
within  a  few  hours  after  they  are  removed  from  the  tree.  In  the  case 
of  varieties  which  naturally  grow  in  clusters,  as  the  Gravenstein,  it 
is  often  necessary  to  use  both  hands  in  removing  the  fruit.  When 
an  attempt  is  made  to  pick  only  one  or  two  apples  from  the  cluster, 
the  remaining  ones  are  very  likely  to  drop. 

In  commercial  orchards,  the  lug  boxes  are  usually  distributed 
ahead  of  the  pickers  and  stacked  between  alternate  trees  in  the  row. 
As  fast  as  the  boxes  are  filled  they  are  stacked,  usually  on  the  side 
of  the  tree  protected  from  the  afternoon  sun.  The  pickers  should 
always  be  warned  against  filling  the  boxes  so  full  that  when  stacked 
upon  one  another  the  fruit  will  be  bruised.  Unless  the  time  element 
is  of  utmost  importance,  it  is  advisable  and  more  satisfactory  to  pay 
pickers  by  the  day  rather  than  by  the  box.  Fewer  boxes  will  be 
harvested  but  the  fruit  will  show  much  less  bruising  and  the  tree  will 
be  left  in  much  better  condition  for  next  year's  crop.  In  anticipating 
the  actual  quantity  of  fruit  which  any  picker  can  harvest  in  a  day's 
time,  consideration  must  be  given  to  the  size  and  distribution  of  the 
crop  on  the  tree,  the  size  of  the  tree  itself,  and  the  general  ease  with 
which  the  fruit  can  be  reached. 

If  the  weather  is  warm  at  the  time  of  harvesting,  fruit  picked  in 
the  forenoon  should,  if  possible,  be  hauled  to  the  packing  house  before 
the  heat  of  the  day.  Fruit  picked  in  the  afternoon  is  often  left  stacked 
in  the  orchard  overnight  and  hauled  in  the  following  morning.  This 
practice  has  the  advantage  in  that  the  fruit  reaches  the  packing  house 


16  Magness,  J.  K.,  et  al.,  The  ripening-,  storage  and  handling  of  apples.     U.  S. 
Dept.  of  Agr.  Dept.  Bui.  1406:1-63.     1926. 


BUL.  425]  APPLE   GROWING   IN    CALIFORNIA  47 

comparatively  cool.  Considerable  care  should  be  used  in  loading  and 
unloading  from  the  wagon  and  when  stacking  in  the  packing  house. 
Pitching  the  boxes,  or  allowing  them  to  drop  for  even  a  distance  of  a 
few  inches,  always  bruises  some  fruit. 


PACKING 

Community  House  Packing. — Where  one  belongs  to  an  association 
and  is  conveniently  located  to  either  the  central  or  one  of  the  district 
packing  houses,  the  fruit  is  usually  packed  in  the  association  house. 
Association  or  community  houses  have  the  advantages  of  modern 
packing  house  equipment  and  can  turn  out  a  standardized,  uniform 
pack  for  the  entire  district.  Such  houses  are  usually  arranged  to 
handle  the  fruit  expeditiously  and  in  the  most  economical  manner. 
Sizing  is  accomplished  by  mechanical  sizers,  to  which  may  be  attached 
wiping  machines.  Each  of  the  other  operations,  such  as  sorting, 
packing,  labeling,  and  nailing  is  done  by  experts.  Expert  packers 
working  from  a  grader  will  easily  average  125  to  150  boxes  a  day, 
and  a  few  can  size  the  fruit  by  hand  and  attain  nearly  as  much  speed. 
The  average  packer,  however,  sizing  his  own  fruit,  will  not  turn  out 
over  80  to  100  boxes.  Standard  size  apple  boxes  are  18  inches  in 
length,  11  inches  in  width,  and  lO1/^  inches  in  depth,  inside  measure- 
ments, and  contain  when  well  packed  approximately  48  pounds  of 
apples.  The  weight  varies  four  to  six  pounds,  according  to  the  variety 
and  tightness  of  the  pack. 

Home  Packing. — Packing  under  ranch  conditions,  where  a  tem- 
porary shed  in  the  orchard  or  some  convenient  out-building  is  used 
as  a  packing  house,  is  of  necessity  slower  on  account  of  lack  of  con- 
veniences and  often  because  of  inexperienced  help.  The  grower  and 
his  family  may  do  much  of  the  work,  packing  only  a  limited  number 
of  boxes  each  day. 

Sorting  and  Sizing. — Regardless  of  where  the  fruit  is  packed,  the 
general  principles  of  the  operation  are  the  same.  Sorting  or  grading 
the  fruit  for  color  and  defects  is  the  first  step  in  packing.  The  Cali- 
fornia Standard  Apple  Act  provides  that  all  apples  offered  for  sale, 
except  those  sent  to  by-products  plants,  should  conform  to  one  of 
three  grades — California  Fancy,  "B"  grade,  or  "C"  grade,  and  all 
packers  should  be  familiar  with  the  requirements  specified  for  these 
grades.17 


17  A  copy  of  the  apple  act  and  rules  and  regulations  governing  the  packing, 
inspection,  and  sale  of  apples  may  be  obtained  from  the  State  Department  of 
Agriculture,  Sacramento. 


48  UNIVERSITY   OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT   STATION 

In  sorting  apples  into  different  grades,  there  is  a  natural  tendency 
to  have  as  great  a  percentage  of  the  fruit  as  possible  in  the  fancy 
grade.  This  grade,  however,  represents  the  most  nearly  perfect  apple 
that  can  be  produced  in  commercial  quantities,  and  hence  the  actual 
percentage  of  the  total  crop  going  into  it  should  usually  be  small. 
Each  specimen,  to  rank  as  first  class,  must  be  of  good  color,  properly 
matured,  of  normal  shape,  and  free  from  insect  pests,  diseases,  bruises 
and  other  defects.  While  a  ten  per  cent  margin  in  packing  is  allowed 
for  diseases  and  insect  injuries,  yet  no  grower,  sorter,  or  packer  should 
feel  that  this  is  a  license  to  see  that  the  box  actually  contains  its  full 
quota  of  such  specimens.  The  very  reverse  attitude  should  be  taken — 
try  to  see  that  every  specimen  meets  the  requirements  and  place  every 
doubtful  apple  in  the  next  lower  grade.  It  is  only  in  this  manner 
that  a  reputation  for  a  standard  pack  of  quality  can  be  established 
and  maintained.  Specimens  lacking  in  color,  slightly  limb-rubbed  or 
misshapen,  those  with  one  or  two  healed  aphis  stings,  and  those  having 
small  scab  spots  (in  the  aggregate  not  exceeding  one-fourth  of  an  inch 
in  diameter)  but  otherwise  capable  of  going  into  the  fancy  grade, 
may  be  packed  in  the  B  grade. 

Third  or  C  grade  apples  include  those  of  poor  color  and  of  various 
shapes.  Most  specimens  also  show  such  defects  as  slight  scab,  blossom 
end  cracks,  sunburn,  frost  injury,  or  skin  breaks.  The  difficulty  in 
packing,  the  unattractiveness  of  the  package,  and  the  low  returns 
rarely  make  the  operation  of  packing  worth  while. 

Commercial  apple  packs  commonly  found  on  the  market  cover  a 
range  of  from  ten  to  fifteen  different  sizes,  the  size  in  each  case  being 
indicated  by  the  number  of  apples  packed  in  the  box.  Each  size 
packed  varies  in  its  diameter  measurements  by  about  one-eighth  of 
an  inch.  Actual  dimensions  vary  slightly  with  the  different  varieties 
of  apples  but  the  average  measurement,  cheek  to  cheek  diameter,  are 
shown  in  table  2. 

TABLE  2 

COMMERCIAL!   SlZES   AND  DIAMETER  MEASUREMENTS    OF  APPLES 

Size  Inches  Size  Inches  Size  Inches 

80 3%  125 2%  163 2H/16 

88 35/16  138 213/1G  175 2% 

96 33/16  150 2%  188 2%6 

113 3 

To  the  amateur,  learning  to  distinguish  the  different  sizes  is  the 
most  difficult  phase  of  packing.  This,  however,  should  largely  be 
mastered  before  attempting  to  pack  a  box  of  commercial  fruit.  A 
measuring  board  of  light  wood  or  heavy  cardboard  in  which  a  series 


Bul.  425] 


APPLE    GROWING   IN    CALIFORNIA 


49 


of  holes  are  cut  is  of  value  in  first  separating  and  fixing  in  mind  the 
different  sizes.  Sample  specimens  can  then  be  arranged  in  rows  for 
frequent  comparison.  Continued  practice  for  a  few  days  in  picking- 
out  the  various  sizes  will  soon  enable  one  to  become  sufficiently 
familiar  with  them  so  that  they  may  be  recognized  at  first  glance. 

Wrapping  and  Styles  of  Pack. — Wrapping  and  placing  the  speci- 
mens in  the  boxes  are  illustrated  and  described  in  detail  in  an  earlier 
publication18  and  will  be  only  briefly  mentioned.  Wrapping  is  an 
aid  in  actually  placing  the  specimens  in  the  box  and  prevents  bruising 
of  the  fruit.  The  actual  operation  is  not  difficult  to  learn,  although 
speed  can  be  acquired  only  with  practice. 


fcWn 


Fig.  8. — Showing  the  general  arrangement  of  diagonal  packs. 

a.  2  x  2  pack,  4  layers  deep,  accommodating  sizes  48-96. 

b.  2  x  3  pack,  5  layers  deep,  accommodating  sizes  113-188. 

The  original  California  apple  box  and  the  straight  pack  is  now 
almost  entirely  superceded  by  the  northwest  box  and  the  diagonal 
pack.  The  diagonal  arrangement  of  the  apples  gives  a  more  solid 
package,  results  in  less  bruising  of  the  fruit  and,  once  learned,  is 
easier  to  construct.  Figure  8  shows  the  general  arrangement  of 
placing  the  specimens  in  the  first  layer  of  the  diagonal  packs.  In 
packing  the  subsequent  layers,  the  apples  are  placed  in  the  pockets 
formed  by  the  layer  beneath.  Sizes  between  48  and  96  to  the  box  are 
packed  according  to  8a,  while  those  113  and  smaller  are  packed  as 
illustrated  in  8b.  Differences  between  the  number  of  apples  in  each 
row  lengthwise  of  the  box  and  the  number  of  layers  in  the  box 
accommodate  the  variation  in  sizes. 


!8  Tufts,  W.  P.,  The  packing  of  apples  in  California.     California  Agr.  Exp. 
Sta.  Cir.  178:1-31.     1919. 


50  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 


DEYINGio 

Drying  furnishes  an  important  outlet  for  that  portion  of  the  crop 
which  on  account  of  the  low  quality,  poor  market  demand,  or  inade- 
quate transportation  facilities,  cannot  successfully  be  sold  as  fresh 
fruit.  Some  8000  tons  of  apples  are  thus  utilized  annually  in  Cali- 
fornia. Santa  Cruz  and  Sonoma  counties  are  the  main  centers  of 
production,  the  output  comprising  that  of  both  commercial  dehydra- 
ting plants  and  home  evaporators. 

Apples  intended  for  drying  should  be  mature  but  not  soft.  For 
a  high  quality  dried  product  they  should  also  be  handled  in  a  manner 
similar  to  that  portion  of  the  crop  which  is  to  be  packed  as  fresh  fruit. 

Peeling,  coring,  and  slicing  of  the  fruit  is  usually  done  by 
machinery  devised  for  these  special  purposes.  The  fruit  may  or  may 
not  be  sulfured  to  prevent  darkening.  Dropping  the  individual  apples 
into  water  immediately  after  peeling  will  largely  prevent  darkening; 
however,  the  bleached  product  is  generally  preferable  on  the  market. 
Bleaching  is  accomplished  by  exposing  the  fruit,  either  before  or 
after  slicing,  to  the  fumes  of  burning  sulfur.  Sulfuring  should 
continue  only  long  enough  to  prevent  discoloration  of  the  fruit  after 
it  is  exposed  to  the  air.  When  the  fruit  has  been  previously  sliced, 
sulfuring  is  more  rapid  than  otherwise.  When  three  or  four  pounds 
of  sulfur  are  used  per  ton  of  fruit  twenty  to  forty  minutes  in  a  tight 
sulfur  chamber  is  usually  sufficient. 

Drying  temperatures  vary  slightly,  the  prevailing  practice  being 
to  start  at  approximately  130°  F  and  gradually  increasing  the  tem- 
perature up  to  175°  F,  again  allowing  it  to  drop  slightly  as  the  fruit 
approaches  dryness. 

Drying  is  considered  complete  when  a  handful  of  slices  gripped 
firmly  in  the  hand  has  an  elastic,  springy  feel  and  separates  immedi- 
ately when  the  pressure  is  released.  Legal  regulations  require  that 
evaporated  apples  shall  not  contain  more  than  24  per  cent  moisture. 
Where  the  fruit  is  dried  in  shallow  layers  on  trays  a  period  of  from 
five  to  eight  hours  is  required  for  the  process. 

The  quality  of  the  product  produced  not  only  depends  upon 
proper  methods  in  handling,  but  to  a  large  extent  upon  the  variety 
of  apples  used.  In  California  the  Bellflower  and  Yellow  Newtown 
are  used  in  greatest  quantity.  Fall  and  winter  varieties  of  good 
cooking  quality  are  preferable  to  summer  varieties  or  those  having 
decidedly  yellow  flesh. 


19  For  further  details  of  drying  see:  Caldwell,  Joseph  F.,  Farm  and  home  dry- 
ing of  fruits  and  vegetables.  U.S.  Dept.  Agr.  Farmers'  Bui.  984:1-37.  1919; 
and  Evaporation  of  fruits.     U.  S.  Dept.  Bui.  1141:1-62.     1923,  same  author. 


Bui,.  425]  APPLE   GROWING   IN    CALIFORNIA  51 


MARKETING 

MAEKETS  AND  SEASONS 

Early  summer  varieties  of  apples  and  others  picked  green  for 
cooking  purposes  move  to  market  in  June.  In  July,  with  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Gravenstein  season,  the  shipments  increase  to  400  or  500 
cars.  These  continue  to  increase  several  hundred  cars  each  month 
until  October,  when  1000  to  1500  cars,  primarily  Yellow  Bellflower 
and  Yellow  Newtown,  are  marketed.  Shipments  of  the  latter  variety, 
as  well  as  other  standard  winter  sorts,  hold  up  well  into  November. 
After  this  time  there  is  a  marked  decrease  in  shipments,  all  fruit 
necessarily  coming  from  storage. 

California  Gravensteins  ripening  early  and  usually  of  excellent 
quality,  find  a  wide  market.  Approximately  90  per  cent  of  the  cars 
shipped  either  go  to  the  eastern  or  central  markets  or  are  exported 
to  South  America  and  other  countries.  Later  varieties  meeting  more 
competition  from  other  states,  find  their  best  market  within  the  state. 
A  small  percentage  of  the  supply,-  however,  goes  to  the  southern  and. 
central  markets,  while  the  smaller  sizes  of  the  Yellow  Newtown 
variety  fill  a  demand  of  the  English  trade. 

TYPES  OF  SALES 

Growers  of  apples  market  their  fruit  either  by  personal  sales  or 
through  various  marketing  agencies.  Personal  sales  may  include  those 
where  the  grower  deals  directly  with  local  dealers  or  consumers; 
F.O.B.  sales  to  cash  buyers  or  representatives  of  marketing  organ- 
izations, and  orchard  sales  made  to  such  buyers  who  may  estimate 
the  crop  and  offer  a  lump  sum  for  the  fruit  on  the  trees. 

Selling  on  local  markets,  especially  those  near  large  cities,  is  often 
profitable.  Usually,  however,  the  quantity  of  any  product  which  can 
be  used  at  a  satisfactory  price  is  quite  limited.  For  larger  quantities 
of  fruit  the  F.O.B.  type  of  sale  is  very  desirable.  A  definite  price  is 
agreed  upon  for  a  certain  quantity  of  fruit  of  a  recognized  grade  and 
the  grower  may  receive  cash  upon  delivery  of  his  product.  Buyers 
of  this  type,  however,  are  usually  scarce  except  in  years  of  short 
crops.  Estimating  the  crop,  often  several  months  before  harvesting, 
and  being  offered  a  definite  sum  for  it  on  the  trees  often  appears  to 
the  grower  a  safe  and  easy  method  of  solving  the  marketing  problem. 
While  this  method  is  not  without  its  advantages,  the  risk  assumed  by 
the  buyer  is  such  that  he  is  justified  in  making  only  a  relatively  Ioav 


52  UNIVERSITY   OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 

offer;  pickers  whom  he  may  employ  to  harvest  the  crop  on  a  box 
basis  often  do  considerable  damage  to  fruit  spurs  and  limbs  of  the 
tree,  and  finally  the  grading  and  packing  of  the  fruit  by  such  buyers 
is  not  always  such  as  to  advance  the  reputation  of  the  district  for  a 
high  quality  product. 

Personal  sales  on  general  markets,  usually  several  hundred  miles 
or  more  distant,  can  be  recommended  only  for  those  who  have  a  wide 
knowledge  of  market  conditions  or  who  can  establish  satisfactory 
market  connections.  Marketing  by  consignment  leaves  everything  to 
the  judgment  and  integrity  of  the  dealer  and  allows  much  room  for 
misunderstanding  and  dissatisfaction. 

On  account  of  such  large  quantities  of  fruit  to  be  sold  within 
a  comparatively  short  time,  the  particular  preferences  of  certain 
markets,  the  great  distance  of  California  from  the  eastern  centers  of 
consumption,  and  many  other  factors,  successful  marketing  is  becom- 
ing more  and  more  a  task  for  marketing  specialists  or  those  who  can 
familiarize  themselves  with  market  conditions  and  the  general 
demands  of  the  trade. 

As  a  result  the  larger  quantity  of  fruit  is  sold  through  private 
marketing  agencies  or  through  cooperative  marketing  associations. 
The  former  may  purchase  the  fruit  outright  or  sell  on  a  commission 
basis.  If  dealing  with  a  reliable  firm  this  furnishes  one  of  the  most 
satisfactory  means  of  marketing. 

Cooperatively  owned  marketing  associations  cannot  "eliminate 
the  middleman"  or  guarantee  to  the  growers — who  are  the  owners — 
larger  returns  than  what  they  might  secure  through  sales  to  private 
agencies  but  they  have  a  number  of  possibilities  for  making  market- 
ing more  successful.20  Many  of  these  operate  their  own  central 
packing  houses  and  are  thus  able  to  put  out  a  high  grade  standardized 
pack  which  has  or  will  become  favorably  known  on  the  market. 
One  or  more  small  associations  are  now  operated  in  most  every  apple 
section  of  the  state.  Some  of  these  do  their  own  marketing  while 
others  sell  through  state  associations  such  as  the  California  Fruit 
Exchange  or  the  Deciduous  Fruit  Distributors. 

Growers  should  realize,  however,  that  as  consumers  become  more 
critical  and  compare  fruit  from  California  with  that  from  other- 
states  that  only  a  superior  product  will  pay  suitable  returns  on  their 
investments.  Growers  are,  therefore,  wise  to  ship  to  distant  markets 
only  a  high  grade,  well  standardized,  and  well  packed  product. 


2o  Erdman,    H.    E.,    Possibilities    and    limitations    of    cooperative    marketing. 
California  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Cir.  298:1-19.     1925. 


BuL.  425]  APPLE   GROWING   IN    CALIFORNIA  53 


STORAGE 

As  all  fall  and  winter  varieties  of  apples  must  be  harvested  within 
a  few  weeks,  although  used  throughout  the  winter  months,  much  of 
the  crop  is  handled  for  a  period  through  storage.  For  the  most  part, 
commercial  cold  storage  plants  are  used.  A  low  temperature  and  high 
humidity  is  maintained  in  the  storage  room  in  order  to  keep  the  fruit 
in  good  condition  throughout  its  natural  holding  period.  Although 
the  seasonal  dates  given  under  each  of  the  winter  varieties  do  not 
indicate  the  latest  date  the  fruit  can  be  held  in  storage  they  are 
intended  to  show  its  period  of  greatest  consumption. 

In  some  sections  where  favorable  temperature  and  humidity  con- 
ditions exist,  individual  growers  have  been  and  are  successful  in 
holding  the  later  and  longer-keeping  varieties  for  a  considerable 
period  in  naturally  cooled  air  storages.  Fruit  stored  in  such  houses 
will  usually  become  wilted  or  overripe  sooner  than  that  from  cold 
storage  plants,  yet  the  former  serve  a  very  useful  purpose  for 
relatively  short  storage  periods  and  are  extensively  used  by  the  apple 
growers  of  the  Northwest.21 


YIELDS    AND    RETURNS 

Differences  in  soil,  climatic  conditions,  varieties,  age  of  trees  and 
general  care  given  the  orchards  are  factors  causing  wide  variation  in 
yields. 

The  largest  and  most  uniform  yields  are  doubtless  secured  in  the 
Pajaro  Valley,  where  the  majority  of  orchards,  under  good  care, 
produce  average  yields  of  from  400  to  450  boxes  to  the  acre.  From 
the  better  orchards  600  to  800  boxes  may  be  produced.  In  the 
Gravenstein  section  of  Sonoma  County  the  general  average  of  the 
full  bearing  orchard  is  estimated  at  250  boxes,  while  the  more  success- 
ful growers  may  secure  400  to  500  boxes  to  the  acre.  In  both  of  these 
sections  individual  orchards  in  certain  seasons  may  give  even  much 
higher  yields,  but  these  are  to  be  regarded  as  exceptional. 

In  other  sections  of  the  state  individual  orchards  will  doubtless 
compare  favorably  with  the  above  figures,  although  owing  to  younger 
trees  and  in  some  cases  lack  of  proper  care,  the  general  average  of  an 
entire  district  is  probably  much  less.     Even  in  the  best  producing 


21   Bamsey,  H.  J.,  and  S.  J.  Dennis,  Management  of  common  storage  houses  in 
the  Pacific  Northwest.     U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Farmers'  Bui.  852:1-23.     1917. 


54  UNIVEESITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT   STATION 

sections  there  are  orchards  from  which  the  yields  are  extremely  low 
and  it  is  only  those  on  the  better  soils  and  receiving  the  best  manage- 
ment which  can  be  expected  to  give  satisfactory  yields. 

Average  returns  from  the  apple  crop  for  the  years  1919-1925 
expressed  as  "farm  value"  are  given  in  table  1.  Figures  of  the 
Sebastopol  Apple  Growers  Union  show  returns  on  the  fancy  grade  of 
Gravensteins  for  the  ten-year  period,  1915-1925,  to  have  averaged 
$1.90  a  box.  Windfalls  and  other  fruit  not  suitable  for  packing  has 
usually  been  disposed  of  at  about  $10.00  a  ton. 

Highly  colored  and  well  graded  winter  varieties  from  the  smaller 
sections  at  higher  elevations  have  during  the  past  five  years  averaged 
from  $1.50  to  $1.75  a  box.  In  some  instances  F.O.B.  sales  have  been 
made  at  $2.50  a  box. 

In  the  Watsonville  section,  where  most  growers  sell  their  unpacked 
crop  to  local  buyers,  returns  for  the  years  1920-1925  have  been  from 
$25.00  to  $35.00  a  ton22  for  the  Yellow  Newtowns  and  from  $20.00 
to  $30.00  a  ton23  for  Yellow  Bellflowers.  While  on  a  box  basis  these 
prices  may  not  seem  to  compare  favorably  with  those  from  other 
sections,  it  should  be  pointed  out  that  these  figures  are  for  the  crop 
orchard  run  and  do  not  involve  any  packing  or  selling  expenses.  The 
larger  average  yields  secured  must  also  be  taken  into  consideration 
in  determining  actual  net  profit. 

In  mentioning  returns  it  should  be  emphasized  that  while  these 
reflect  the  general  condition  of  the  industry,  their  significance  can 
only  be  fully  realized  by  the  grower  who  knows  his  costs  of  production. 
High  returns  per  box  do  not  necessarily  mean  large  profits,  as  low 
yields,  extra  cost  for  spraying,  thinning,  or  marketing  affects  profit 
regardless  of  price. 


22  Approximately  55  boxes  to  the  ton. 

23  Approximately  60  boxes  to  the  ton. 


STATION   PUBLICATIONS   AVAILABLE   FOR   FREE   DISTRIBUTION 


BULLETINS 


No. 

253.   Irrigation   and   Soil   Conditions   in  the 
Sierra   Nevada   Foothills,    California. 

261.  Melaxuma    of    the    Walnut,     "Juglans 

regia." 

262.  Citrus   Diseases  of   Florida    and   Cuba 

Compared  with  Those  of  California. 

263.  Size   Grades  for  Ripe  Olives. 

268.  Growing  and  Grafting  Olive  Seedlings. 
273.  Preliminary  Report  on  Kearney  Vine- 
yard  Experimental   Drain. 

275.  The     Cultivation     of     Belladonna     in 

California. 

276.  The  Pomegranate. 

277.  Sudan    Grass. 

278.  Grain    Sorghums. 

279.  Irrigation   of  Rice  in   California. 
283.  The  Olive  Insects  of  California. 
294.  Bean   Culture  in    California. 

304.  A  Study  of  the  Effects  of  Freezes  on 

Citrus    in    California. 
310.   Plum    Pollination. 

312.  Mariout   Barley. 

313.  Pruning      Young      Deciduous      Fruit 

Trees. 
319.   Caprifigs    and    Caprification. 

324.  Storage  of  Perishable  Fruit  at  Freez- 

ing Temperatures. 

325.  Rice     Irrigation     Measurements      and 

Experiments    in    Sacramento    Valley, 

1914-1919. 
328.   Prune   Growing   in    California. 
331.   Phylloxera-Resistant    Stocks. 
335.   Cocoanut    Meal    as    a    Feed    for   Dairy 

Cows   and   Other   Livestock. 

339.  The    Relative    Cost    of    Making    Logs 

from   Small   and  Large  Timber. 

340.  Control     of     the     Pocket     Gopher     in 

California. 

343.  Cheese    Pests    and    Their    Control. 

344.  Cold    Storage    as   an    Aid    to    the    Mar- 

keting of  Plums. 

346.  Almond    Pollination. 

347.  The  Control  of  Red  Spiders  in  Decid- 

uous Orchards. 

348.  Pruning  Young  Olive  Trees. 

349.  A     Study    of    Sidedraft    and    Tractor 

Hitches. 

350.  Agriculture      in      Cut-over      Redwood 

Lands. 

352.  Further  Experiments  in  Plum  Pollina- 

tion. 

353.  Bovine    Infectious   Abortion. 

354.  Results  of  Rice  Experiments  in    1922. 

357.  A     Self-mixing    Dusting    Machine    for 

Applying      Dry       Insecticides       and 
Fungicides. 

358.  Black    Measles,     Water    Berries,     and 

Related  Vine  Troubles. 

361.  Preliminary    Yield    Tables    for    Second 

Growth   Redwood. 

362.  Dust  and  the  Tractor  Engine. 

363.  The  Pruning  of  Citrus  Trees  in   Cali- 

fornia. 

364.  Fungicidal    Dusts    for    the    Control    of 

Bunt. 

365.  Avocado  Culture  in   California. 

366.  Turkish  Tobacco  Culture,   Curing  and 

Marketing. 

367.  Methods  of  Harvesting  and  Irrigation 

in   Relation  of  Mouldy  Walnuts. 

368.  Bacterial  Decomposition  of  Olives  dur- 

ing Pickling. 

369.  Comparison     of     Woods     for     Butter 

Boxes. 


No. 

370. 

371. 

372. 

373. 
374. 


375. 

376. 

377. 
379. 
380. 

381. 

382. 

383. 

385. 
386. 

387. 
388. 

389. 
390. 

391. 

392. 
393. 
394. 

395. 
396. 

397. 

398. 
399. 


400. 
401. 

402. 
403. 
404. 
405. 
406. 
407. 


408. 
409. 


410. 
411. 
412. 

413. 

414. 


Browning  of  Yellow  Newtown  Apples. 

The  Relative  Cost  of  Yarding  Small 
and   Large  Timber. 

The  Cost  of  Producing  Market  Milk  and 
Butterfat  on  246  California  Dairies. 

Pear    Pollination. 

A  Survey  of  Orchard  Practices  in  the 
Citrus  Industry  of  Southern  Cali- 
fornia. 

Results  of  Rice  Experiments  at  Cor- 
tena,    1923. 

Sun-Drying  and  Dehydration  of  Wal- 
nuts. 

The   Cold   Storage  of   Pears. 

Walnut   Culture   in    California. 

Growth  of  Eucalyptus  in  California 
Plantations. 

Growing  and  Handling  Asparagus 
Crowns. 

Pumping  for  Drainage  in  the  San 
Joaquin    Valley,    California. 

Monilia  Blossom  Blight  (Brown  Rot) 
of  Apricot. 

Pollination    of    the    Sweet    Cherry. 

Pruning  Bearing  Deciduous  Fruit 
Trees. 

Fig   Smut. 

The  Principles  and  Practice  of  Sun- 
drying  Fruit. 

Berseem  or   Egyptian    Clover. 

Harvesting  and  Packing  Grapes  in 
California. 

Machines  for  Coating  Seed  Wheat  with 
Copper    Carbonate    Dust. 

Fruit    Juice    Concentrates. 

Crop  Sequences  at  Davis. 

Cereal  Hay  Production  in  California. 
Feeding  Trials  with  Cereal  Hay. 

Bark   Diseases   of   Citrus  Trees. 

The  Mat  Bean  (Phaseolus  aconitifo- 
lius). 

Manufacture  of  Roquefort  Type  Cheese 
from   Goat's   Milk. 

Orchard  Heating  in  California. 

The  Blackberry  Mite,  the  Cause  of 
Redberry  Disease  of  the  Himalaya 
Blackberry,    and    its   Control. 

The  Utilization  of  Surplus  Plums. 

Cost  of  Work  Horses  on  California 
Farms. 

The  Codling  Moth  in  Walnuts. 

Farm-Accounting  Associations. 

The  Dehydration  of  Prunes. 

Citrus  Culture  in  Central  California. 

Stationary  Spray  Plants  in  California. 

Yield,  Stand  and  Volume  Tables  for 
White  Fir  in  the  California  Pine 
Region. 

Alternaria  Rot  of  Lemons. 

The  Digestibility  of  Certain  Fruit  By- 
products as  Determined  for  Rumi- 
nants. 

Factors  Affecting  the  Quality  of  Fresh 
Asparagus  after  it  is  Harvested. 

Paradichlorobenzene  as  a  Soil  Fumi- 
gant. 

A  Study  of  the  Relative  Values  of  Cer- 
tain Root  Crops  and  Salmon  Oil  as 
Sources  of  Vitamin  A  for  Poultry. 

The  California  Poultry  Industry;  a 
Statistical   Study. 

Planting  and  Thinning  Distances  for 
Deciduous  Fruit  Trees. 


No. 
87. 
117. 

127. 
129. 
136. 

144. 

157. 
160. 
164. 
166. 
170. 

173. 

178. 
179. 

190. 
199. 
202. 

203. 
209. 
210. 
212. 
215. 
217. 

220. 
228. 
230. 

231. 

232. 

234. 
235. 
236. 


237. 

238. 
239. 

240. 

241. 

243. 

244. 
245. 
247. 
248. 

249. 
250. 

252. 
253. 
254. 


the 


the 


Fire 


Alfalfa. 

The    Selection    and    Cost    of    a    Small 

Pumping   Plant. 
House   Fumigation. 
The  Control  of  Citrus   Insects. 
Melilotus    indica    as    a    Green-Manure 

Crop  for  California. 
Oidium    or    Powdery    Mildew    of 

Vine. 
Control  of  the  Pear  Scab. 
Lettuce  Growing  in  California. 
Small  Fruit  Culture  in  California. 
The  County  Farm  Bureau. 
Fertilizing     California     Soils     for 

1918   Crop. 
The    Construction    of    the    Wood-Hoop 

Silo. 
The  Packing  of  Apples  in   California. 
Factors    of    Importance    in    Producing 

Milk  of  Low  Bacterial  Count. 
Agriculture  Clubs  in  California. 
Onion  Growing  in  California. 
County   Organizations   for   Rural 

Control. 

Peat   as   a   Manure    Substitute. 
The  Function  of  the  Farm  Bureau.. 
Suggestions  to  the  Settler  in  California. 
Salvaging    Rain-Damaged    Prunes. 
Feeding  Dairy  Cows  in  California. 
Methods   for  Marketing  Vegetables   in 

California. 
Unfermented   Fruit   Juices. 
Vineyard  Irrigation  in  Arid  Climates. 
Testing  Milk,    Cream,    and   Skim   Milk 

for  Butterfat. 
The    Home   Vineyard. 
Harvesting    and    Handling    California 

Cherries    for    Eastern    Shipment. 
Winter  Injury  to  Young  Walnut  Trees 

during  1921-22. 
Soil     Analysis     and     Soil     and     Plant 

Inter-relations. 
The     Common     Hawks     and    Owls    of 

California    from    the    Standpoint    of 

the  Rancher. 
Directions  for  the  Tanning  and  Dress- 
ing of  Furs. 
The  Apricot  in  California. 
Harvesting     and     Handling     Apricots 

and  Plums  for  Eastern  Shipment. 
Harvesting    and    Handling    Pears    for 

Eastern   Shipment. 
Harvesting  and  Handling  Peaches  for 

Eastern    Shipment. 
Marmalade  Juice  and  Jelly  Juice  from 

Citrus  Fruits. 
Central  Wire  Bracing  for  Fruit  Trees. 
Vine   Pruning  Systems. 
Colonization    and    Rural   Development. 
Some    Common    Errors    in    Vine  Prun- 
ing and  Their  Remedies. 
Replacing    Missing    Vines. 
Measurement   of    Irrigation   Water   on 

the  Farm. 
Supports  for  Vines. 
Vineyard  Plans. 
The  Use  of  Artificial  Light  to  Increase 

Winter    Egg    Production. 


CIRCULARS 
No. 
255. 


256. 
257. 
258. 
259. 
261. 
262. 
263. 
264. 

265. 
266. 

267. 

269. 
270. 
272. 

273. 

274. 

276. 
277. 

278. 

279. 

281. 


282. 

283. 
284. 
285. 
286. 
287. 
288. 
289. 
290. 
291. 

292. 
293. 
294. 
295. 

296. 

298. 

299. 
300. 
301 
302. 
303. 

304, 
305 
306, 

307, 
308 


Leguminous  Plants  as  Organic  Fertil- 
izer  in    California    Agriculture. 

The   Control   of  Wild   Morning   Glory. 

The  Small-Seeded  Horse  Bean. 

Thinning   Deciduous   Fruits. 

Pear  By-products. 

Sewing  Grain  Sacks. 

Cabbage  Growing  in  California. 

Tomato  Production  in  California. 

Preliminary  Essentials  to  Bovine 
Tuberculosis  Control. 

Plant   Disease   and   Pest   Control. 

Analyzing  the  Citrus  Orchard  by 
Means   of    Simple   Tree   Records. 

The  Tendency  of  Tractors  to  Rise  in 
Front;    Causes  and  Remedies. 

An  Orchard  Brush  Burner. 

A  Farm  Septic  Tank. 

California  Farm  Tenancy  and  Methods 
of  Leasing. 

Saving  the  Gophered  Citrus  Tree. 

Fusarium  Wilt  of  Tomato  and  its  Con- 
trol by  Means  of  Resistant  Varieties. 

Home  Canning. 

Head,  Cane,  and  Cordon  Pruning  of 
Vines. 

Olive  Pickling  in  Mediterranean  Coun- 
tries. 

The  Preparation  and  Refining  of  Olive 
Oil   in    Southern   Europe. 

The  Results  of  a  Survey  to  Determine 
the  Cost  of  Producing  Beef  in  Cali- 
fornia. 

Prevention  of  Insect  Attack  on  Stored 
Grain. 

Fertilizing  Citrus  Trees  in  California. 

The  Almond   in   California. 

Sweet  Potato  Production  in  California. 

Milk  Houses  for  California  Dairies. 

Potato   Production   in   California. 

Phylloxera  Resistant  Vineyards. 

Oak  Fungus  in  Orchard  Trees. 

The  Tangier  Pea. 

Blackhead  and  Other  Causes  of  Loss 
of  Turkeys  in  California. 

Alkali  Soils. 

The    Basis   of   Grape    Standardization. 

Propagation   of   Deciduous   Fruits. 

The  Growing  and  Handling  of  Head 
Lettuce  in   California. 

Control  of  the  California  Ground 
Squirrel. 

The  Possibilities  and  Limitations  of 
Cooperative   Marketing. 

Poultry   Breeding  Records. 

Coccidiosis  of  Chickens. 

Buckeye  Poisoning  of  the  Honey  Bee. 

The   Sugar  Beet  in   California. 

A  Promising  Remedy  for  Black  Measles 
of  the  Vine. 

Drainage  on  the  Farm. 

Liming  the  Soil. 

A  General  Purpose  Soil  Auger  and  its 
Use  on  the  Farm. 

American   Foulbrood  and  its   Control. 

Cantaloupe  Production  in  California. 


The  publications  listed  above  may  be  had  by  addressing 

College  of  Agriculture, 

University  of  California, 

Berkeley,  California, 


15m-5,'27 


